Employee motivation in international business organizations: the case of PCCW on workplace learning
CHAPTER I
Introduction
Human resources management and its functional applications have changed at the turn of the century. There are significant changes, challenges and opportunities that are faced by human resources managers. A considerable number of companies have developed into an essential part of the period of global competition, increasing development, improved business paradigms, and corporate reorganization. The continuing transformation from the traditional industrial framework with its hierarchical companies to a worldwide, knowledge-founded financial system and intelligent corporations that alters the ideas regarding the agreement of rights and duties involving employers and employees and the progressive expansion of more adaptable pool of talent and a body of workforce, necessitates human resource (HR) purposes to realign and relocate itself in the vicinity of these social and economic drivers. Furthermore, the world as well as national economies and markets are different from those of a decade ago. As paradigms have changed, the characteristics affecting human resources management are subject for assessment in order to provide the needs of the organization, its market and especially its people. It is also to keep up with relevance to the latest or emerging trends and strategies that contribute to the whole success of the organization and its operations. In today’s rapid development and technological transformation, the world of big international business industries where transactions and other business operations are governed by law, cultural differences and mutual trust, efficiency counts largely as a common entrepreneurial aim.
The labor force is characterized by people who are oriented to productivity and performance in the basis of their skills and capabilities. Changes in the nature of managerial work over the last years have a reflective and alarming impact on the roles of the HR managers within the new modes of organizational flexibility as well as leveling power of information technology. Generally, the emergence of HRM as a universal remedy for integrating business strategy and people management has exposed personnel practitioners to a fresh set of role challenges and managerial expectations that have stressed out the gaps between the HR language and reality. Further, the attempts to capture the changing environment of the HR personnel roles in response to major transformations in the workplace, the associated rise of HRM, and the competitive advantage of the whole organization through its manpower are few aspects that HR functions embark upon.
Statement of the Problem
It is said that the PCCW Management have blossomed on its local / domestic home country and moved on to internationalize their trend to some other countries / continents because of their effective methods of motivating their stuff. Hence, the causes of this success must be investigated and lessons must be learned and derived from this study.
Purpose of the Study
This study will be conducted in order to determine the success factors of the PCCW Management in internationalizing their trend to other countries / continents through their effective staff motivation strategies, and provide meaningful lessons.
This study will also aim to increase the awareness and provide a better understanding of the issues and problems concerning most companies and organizations in order to contribute an effective approach in addressing their staff motivation problems.
Significance of the Study
If the success factors of the PCCW Management in internationalizing their trend to other countries / continents through their effective staff motivation strategies will be determined, this study will be a benefit to other multinational companies experiencing problems gaining ground to other parts of the world. Also, if effectiveness is supported, this study will be significant in developing underachieving multinational companies and organizations as productive and effective entities in the future.
Research Questions
Specifically this study will address the following questions:
1. What are the motivational factors and other related factors that affect employee motivation on learning exemplified by employees of PCCW?
2. What are the incentive preferences of employees of PCCW in relation to workplace learning?
3. How effective are these incentive system when applied to the process of learning?
CHAPTER II
Review of Related Literature
The wide ranges of literatures related to human resources management as well as various incidents affecting its totality are extensive. Given with this fact, this chapter goes over the related literatures conducted on the area of study. By embarking on such pursuit, the research may be guided accordingly by firstly discovering where the research is coming from, what and how much have been studied regarding the topic and what it is yet to tackle. Besides providing background to the study, this study will provide the necessary theoretical and conceptual aspects in order for the research to stand credible. References from this segment of the paper are a product of broad researching and information retrieval.
Overview of the Company: PCCW
The largest integrated communications company in Hong Kong, PCCW was founded in 1994 and currently headed by Richard Li as Chairman. It offers key telecommunication services, business e-solutions, infrastructure, and television and media content including fixed-line, IPTV, mobile, Internet, ICT solutions, global communications and infrastructure. The Company also manages Internet Data Centers and Contact Centers. Aside from its Hong Kong, Mainland China and Macau offices, PCCW’s operation extends to various countries namely Taiwan, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Korea, Japan, United States, and United Kingdom and still growing. The revenue of PCCW as recorded in its Interim Report 2007 accounted to HK,607 million for the six months (January to June 2007). Now, PCCW employs approximately 15,400 workers.
The Concept of Motivation
Motivation is an important element to every organization, as this could affect the productivity and the morale of the staff. Lack of motivation will cause high staff turnover, high rate of absenteeism, poor performance, not willing to attend the training course, etc. If the hotel managers understand the employee’s underlying learning motivator, it can improve the customer satisfaction in the long run ( 1999). It is the role of HRD to implement different kind of rewards system or recognition system in order to maintain the morale. (2000) stated that “motivation is a process not a result” (). By understanding the motivation theories, it also assists HRD to prepare a better structure of training planning and design in an organization. It is fundamental to understand the motivation factor in order to examine the relationship between rewards system and learning attitude of the people.
There are different perceptions and definitions of “motivation”. Some people might think that motivation is a view of personal trait as some have or some might not have it (1998). Motivation can be defined as the willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need ( 1998). (1993) also defined motivation will cause people to act or behave in certain ways. Furthermore, defines motivation as ‘the degree to which an individual wants and chooses to engage in certain specified behaviors’ (1999). From this theory, identifies four common characteristics which underline the above definition of motivation:
Motivation is typified as an individual phenomenon. Every person is unique and all the major theories of motivation allow for this uniqueness to be demonstrated in one way or another.
Motivation is described, usually, as intentional. Motivation is assumed to be under the worker’s control, and behaviours that are influenced by motivation, such as effort expended, are seen as choices of action.
Motivation is multifaceted. The two factors of greatest importance are (1) what gets people activated (arousal); and (2) the force of an individual to engage in desired behaviour (direction or choice of behaviour).
The purpose of motivational theories is to predict behaviour. Motivation is not the behaviour itself, and it is not performance. Motivation concerns action, and the internal and external forces that influence a person’s choice of action.
From the definitions mentioned, it can be analysed that motivation is necessary for the growth of the employee in the organisation. The employee starts his/her career through learning, basically the culture of the organisation and his/her responsibilities. Motivation is a vital element to learning because if an organisation does not possess the ability to motivate its employees, the knowledge within the organisation is not practically used to the fullest (1999). Thus, in every successful learning organisation, finding the factors that will motivate its employees to partake in continuous learning and to take advantage of this knowledge, accordingly, becomes their aim (1999).
The HR manager evaluates and motivates its employees. It is believed that motivation is the key to beneficial retention of employees to work and to like their work. The theories of motivation gave some ideas of how a motivation program can be implemented within an organisation. This can be started by surveying the employees and ask them what they think about the company. Through research conducted by the manager, the basic needs of employees can be identified and satisfied through the development and implementation of motivation programs. The initial act that should be done is to make employees realise their personal worth by empowering them. For instance, employees should be given the freedom to voice out their opinions, although there should be a standard on how conversations should be ethically observed, as well as respect to superiors. Former General Manager of General Electric, Jack Welch uses this approach to empower employees. Through this, little and huge issues that affect employees everyday work behaviours were identified and solved (1998). This is fundamentally a great way to identify employees’ needs.
On the other hand, leadership also plays a fundamental part in motivating employees. Today, leadership serves as a critical element of organisational success. In motivating employees to learn, leaders must set a way towards a given goal, inspire, or motivate them to follow (2003). The HR manager should know how to recognise success and how to praise those who deserve praises. Several studies found positive linkage between leadership styles and job satisfaction, except for the initiating structure leadership style, which similarly shows negative effect on job satisfaction (1993; 1997; 2004). Deserving employees can be effectively praised and recognised through awards and bonuses. Developing a program were a particular employee with good performance would be branded as employee of the week can also be a good idea. Of course, this should also come with small rewards to make employees feel that their efforts pay off.
Further, motivation is the interaction between the individual and the situation. Under different situations, individual will respond differently. It all depends on the individual motivational drive or individual needs and varies from situation to situation ( 1997). It also leads motivation treated as a need-satisfying process; an unsatisfied need creates tension that stimulates drives within the individuals. These drives generate search behaviour to find particular goals that, if attained, will satisfy the need and lead to the reduction of tension (1998).
Figure 2.2 Motivation Theory
To understand better the various terms and forms of motivation to learn, it is useful to review different kinds of motivational theories in this chapter. There are several types of motivation theories. Among these, the best-known and most typical examples are Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Herzberg’s motivation and hygiene factors, McClelland’s three needs theory and Vroom’s expectancy theory ( 1991). These are used on this research because of their proven relativity and applicability to the concept of this research. Also, they are the most common theories in relation to employee motivation and reward system.
2.1.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970) was a psychologist and one of the most well-known motivation theories is Hierarchy of Needs. Robbins (1998) mentioned that Maslow generalized that every human beings exists a hierarchy of five needs, which are:
In order to apply an appropriate rewards system in an organization, it is essential to understand the idea of human needs and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs can reflect the five general human needs. The figure below illustrates the graphical representation of the most popular motivational model – Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
Figure 2.3 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Model
This theory is based on a progression hypothesis and it called content theory. Content theory seeks to examine the specific factors that motivate behaviours. In Maslow’s theory, people progress up the hierarchy as they successively gratify each level of need. On this research, this theory will serve the purposes of relating the need of motivating people to learn.
2.1.2 Herzberg’s motivation and hygiene factors theory
Motivation-hygiene theory was proposed by another psychologist Frederick Herzberg. It emphasised that the needs satisfactions are categorized into intrinsic and extrinsic factors. According to (1993), motivation can take place in either intrinsic motivation or extrinsic motivation:
- Intrinsic motivation – the self-generated factors and influence people to behave in a particular way or direction. Intrinsic factors motivate us from within personal interest, desire and fulfilment. It has long-term and deeper effect.
- Extrinsic motivation – To satisfy indirect or instrumental needs. It arises from some kind of ‘Do this’ and you will get that motivation ( 2001). It has an immediate and powerful effect but will not last long.
To a certain extent, part of the Herzberg’s theory is parallel to Maslow’s theory. It can be seen that the hygiene factors in the lower levels of Maslow’s hierarchy and the motivators in the higher levels. However, unlike Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Herzberg’s two-factor theory argued that individual needs satisfaction does not process in a hierarchy (1999). The motivation-hygiene theory needs to hold management not only to provide hygiene factors and avoid employee dissatisfaction, but also provide factors intrinsic to the work itself in order for employees to be satisfied with their jobs. It can be argued that it does not mean that the employee is motivated to learn. From Herzberg’s theory, it encourages the organisation to enlarge and enrich work responsibilities and pay more attention to goal-setting, appraisal, reward and recognition system. According to (1993), it applied the Herzberg’s theories in one of the hotels in Cyprus. From the concept of quality and guest satisfaction level, it shown that Herzberg’s theory is more relevant than Maslow’s. Will this be applicable in the Hong Kong hotel industry?
2.1.3 McClelland Three need theory
McClelland’s theory of needs that focuses on three needs: achievement, power and affiliation. Need of achievement means people are striving personal achievement rather than the rewards. People are highly motivated by challenge and competitive work situation (1995). Need of power is the desire to have impact or influence or control others. Need of affiliation is the desire of friendship; prefer to keep good relationship instead of competitive environment (1998). In McClelland theory, it contends that people with a high need for achievement make good managers. For instance, people with high need for achievement will eager to obtain feedback on their performance, willing to solve problem and exhibit moderate levels of risk taking ( 1992). In view of Herzberg and McClelland’s motivation theories, it shown that both theories are not defined ‘money’ as motivator. It means financial rewards are not the key motivation factor. On the other hand, (1991) disagreed that the need of affiliation is more important than monetary rewards. (1987) was conducted a research in Hong Kong, it found that the primary motivator in Hong Kong is the financial reward. (1988) also stated that monetary compensation is the key motivator for Hong Kong’s staffs. It can be argued that how far it can motivate the staff to learn by using the financial reward for the hotel employees. Besides, hotel management is necessarily to understand the key motivator on learning in order to apply the effective reward system. McClelland three needs theory (1999) is more focused on different kind of non-monetary human needs. (1945) commented that these three needs are more important than monetary compensation in motivating employees. It is worthwhile to look into the McClelland three needs theory in order to examine the importance of the non-monetary reward system.
2.1.4 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
The staff’s expectancy cannot be ignored. Therefore, Vroom’s expectancy theory will be discussed in the following section. This theory is focused on the personal perceptions and it can reflect the individual concept instead of only concentrated on the monetary reward.
Vroom’s expectancy theory of motivation focuses on personal perceptions of the performance process, ‘the more motivated the worker to perform effectively, the more effective his performance’ ( 1970). Expectancy theory argues that the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual (1998). Expectancy is the belief that effort leads to performance, for example, ‘If I try harder, I can do better.’ It reflected this theory focuses on the following relationships:
1. Effort – Performance relationship – Individual perceived that exert a certain amount of effort will lead to performance;
2. Performance – Reward relationship – Individual believes that achieve the certain performance level will lead to attainment of a desired outcome; and
3. Rewards – Personal goals relationship – Organizational rewards satisfy individual personal goals or needs.
Figure 2.4 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory Model
According to the expectancy theory, employees expect and need to be rewarded according to the work they do, and will help them to develop their capability, help them to work up to a higher level so that they can be better rewarded (2002). Employees expect organisations to have compensation systems that they perceive as being fair and commensurate with their skills and expectations. The compensation may, in some cases, act as employee motivators. These compensations that employees receive may be value-added compensation including direct compensation, such as salary, incentives and commissions; and indirect compensation, such as insurance benefits, employee recognition programs, flexible work hours, and vacation benefits.
Similar to Maslow’s theory of needs hierarchy, the expectancy theory may also be applied in the organisational context. More specifically, it could possess vital implications with regard to corporate reward system as according to and (2001):
Ø a clear connection between rewards and performance must be determined,
Ø the connection between rewards and performance must be relayed to the human resources,
Ø the rewards must be provided based on performance,
Ø the rewards must fulfil the specific needs of the employees so as to draw out a high level of motivation, and,
Ø barriers in organizations that hinder excellent performance must be eradicated to ensure motivated behaviour.
If the staffs in an organisation believe that it needs to put effort and lead to performance in order to achieve certain rewards and personal goals, reward system could motivate them to learn.
Learning and its Importance to Employee and Organisation
(1999) agreed organisational learning as associated with the transfer of managerial knowledge from subsidiaries to the parent company. It can also be the case that the transfer is from one overseas affiliate to another. In addition, organisational learning is believed to be part of the core competencies that will allow multinational companies to adapt and succeed in international operations ( 1995). This suggests that organisational learning is important in order for organisations to have better understanding to the underpinnings of the market that they have decided to penetrate as well as the culture of the industry that they decided to operate into. For them, without direct involvement of employers, little education and training of staff members will occur that will have an effect on their future employability.
The philosophy of learning through experience and learning by doing have a lengthy association with adult and workplace learning (1993), and tend to foreground individuals and their lived realities. To quote (2004, ),
Whilst the accounts of individuals can shed light on how people learn at work and can help make sense of diverse situations, they can also mask the ways in which opportunities and barriers are structured and unevenly distributed across organizations and different groups. It is important to understand the extent to which the organization of work influences workplace learning because benefits in terms, for example, of career progression and self-confidence can accrue to those who have access to a variety of learning opportunities and who have the autonomy necessary for self-direction. Those employees whose knowledge and skills remain tacit are more likely to have their competence underestimated and their contribution to the organization undervalued.
The role employees can play in improving an organization’s effectiveness requires a focus on the types of knowledge and skills learned at work as well as on how they can be supplied, supported, and developed (2004). With this, there is a need for HR managers to have systematic training programs that address the requirement of changes and trends within the industry the organization operates. (2005) argue that efficient training and development mechanisms can facilitate companies in the acquisition of a staff who posses the right combination of skills and motivations. The different types of training activities include the orientation of new employees, helping them to gain innovative skills, and strengthening skills that are present at hand.
Companies worldwide implement various trends in training as a response to the emerging culture of modernized workforce. Goldstein and Gilliam (in Hornsby and Kuratko 2005) recommend training to adjust to four major trends that affect organizational function and management. These trends include the changes in the demographic characteristics of the workforce, more sophisticated and improved technology, career movements from manufacturing to service-oriented jobs, and the inevitable impacts of the global markets. With these affecting trends, managers today should concentrate in training their manpower in order to deal with the challenges as well as the latest developments in whatever industry they operate into. More or less, the existing trends in HRM today are said to be relevant in the international business setting because it affects the general performance of manager’s administrative roles.
Learning organisation is rooted on the principle that a successful organisation must be able to continuously adapt and learn as it consistently operates, to have the ability to respond to the emerging changes and new trends in its immediate environment, and for the purposes of growth (2004; 2000; 1990). According to (1993) and(1998), the learning organization is an institution that learns powerfully and collectively, continually transforming itself to better manage and use knowledge for corporate success, empowering people within and outside the organization to learn as they work and to utilize technology to maximize learning and production. The conceptual foundations of learning organization are firmly based on systems theory (1990) and its practical application to managing a business has evolved out of strategic planning and strategic management ( 1985; 1994), which have recognized that organizational learning is the underlying source of strategic change (1988;1993).
In recent years, several industry leaders have begun to focus attention on organisational learning. Business leaders particularly in the hospitality industry must alter the environment to support and encourage learning, connect learning to business operations, communicate the importance of the learning organisation, demonstrate their commitment to learning, transform the organisational culture to one of continuous learning and improvement, and establish organisation-wide strategies for learning in order to make the transition from the traditional to the learning organisation. In addition, eliminating organisational bureaucracy, encourage employee involvement and embrace continuous, adaptive improvement-oriented learning approaches throughout the organisation is also important in changing organisational phase.
(1994) and (1993) confirmed that learning organisations tend to have the following characteristics in common. First, they provide continuous learning opportunities as they use learning to reach their goals. Secondly, they link individual performance with organisational performance. Thirdly, they foster inquiry and dialogue, making it safe for people to share openly and take risks. Also, they embrace creative tension as a source of energy and renewal. Lastly, they are continuously aware of and interact with their environment.
(1998) argued that learning organisations have the following core strategic building blocks:
1. Mission and Vision – Clarity and employee support of the mission, strategy, and espoused values of the organisation.
2. Leadership – Leadership that is perceived as empowering employees, encouraging an experimenting culture, and showing strong commitment to the organisation.
3. Experimentation – A strong culture of experimentation that is rewarded and supported at all levels in the organisation.
4. Transfer of Knowledge – The ability of an organisation to transfer knowledge within and from outside the organisation and to learn from failures.
5. Teamwork and Cooperation – An emphasis on teamwork and group problem-solving as the mode of operation and for developing innovative ideas.
Similarly, (2002) added five ideals of the learning organisation: a) organization-wide free flows of ideas, know-how, identity and spirit; b) ongoing collective transformation and self-improvement; c) dispersed learning leadership, climate creation and facilitation; d) open dialogue engaging multiple perspectives; and e) protean career contracts. The essential principle on which many interpretations of the learning organisation is based is the thought that through learning, an organisation is able to adapt, develop, transform and change to meet the needs of itself, its people and society. Here, learning is the key to transformation. This is a very much holistic approach to strategy and to learning which sees it as linking individuals and groups in an organisational web that responds, reacts and transforms in an ongoing process. This means focusing less on specific events and more on the ongoing and underlying patterns and movements for change.
The significance for policy that workplace learning has in any given country and perceptions of its contribution to competitiveness, are dependent on the nature of the vocational education and training system, the relationship between the state, labour and capital, and the production system (2004). From the extensive use of various sources, it is practically acceptable to wrap up that the main idea behind learning organisation is the recognition of the practical applications and importance of learning. Learning is an important factor that contributes to the development of new innovations as well as vital instrument in addressing organisational change. As there are necessary, countless, and profitable consequences visible, learning is very much relevant particularly in linking the holistic development of people and organisations as well as the overall processes involved in the general environment. The related mechanisms are also important in planning the future operations and activities of the organisation. Through learning, the organisation is able to identify needs, predict trends, eliminate risks, solve problems, and cope up with the challenges in the market.
2.2 Other factors that affect employee on learning
According to Foley (2004), human resource development is now concerned not just with training but with broader issues of workplace learning and change, generating a new field of practice and study, organisational learning. Historically, the past 30 years have fundamentally altered the condition of adult education as well as philosophy about adult learning. There are disappearances of specific university extension education while universities have expanded their professional education offerings. Community-based education has had to become largely self-supporting, and so has become much more businesslike in both its organisation and course offerings ( 2004). Technical or vocational education similarly has long-drawn-out and diversified, adding ‘further education’ to its title in many countries. Numerous fields of practice have generated their own distinguishing forms of education and the management aspect is not kept apart.
Initially, learning is important to the employees and employers as this could increase the competitive power of an organisation. To implement an effective reward system to motivate employee on learning, it is not enough to only understand the relationship between reward system and motivation theories but also the other relevant factors that affect employee motivation to learn like adult learning and culture.
2.2.1 Adult learning
Today, the adult education class strives to provide adult learners an opportunity to use and apply what they have learned. It encourages the learners to think critically and to constantly redefine the content and process of the learning experience. Adult education is also expected to heighten individual awareness of community issues, motivate learners to create opportunities, embrace new ideas and give direction to positive change.
In adult education and learning perspectives, an article written by (1998 ;2002) identified five philosophies in adult education namely: liberal, progressive, behaviorist, humanist, and radical. With this particular fact, the argument of what kind of pedagogy will be used may be based in these given philosophies. However, (2002) argued that these five philosophies provide a clear framework to understand the different definitions, goals, roles, concepts, methods and scholars within adult education. They noted that importance of realizing that in reality, the personal philosophies of every individual in education do not fit exactly into specific categories and that while majority of people may identify primarily with one philosophy, others may share elements of the others (2002).
Adult education is certainly affected by the ambiguity that characterizes the contemporary global situation today. Increasingly, there are difficult questions posed about what constitutes the field of adult education and what are its values and purposes ( 1997). In times when a greater number of adults coming from a diversity of backgrounds enter an increasing variety of programmes, another set of problems is emerging. The difficulty in coping with the current uncertainty is compounded by the nature of the contemporary situation, which itself is difficult to characterize and interpret. Whilst there is general agreement that the world is extremely witnessing profound economic, technological and cultural changes, there is less agreement on whether these constitute a continuation of quality education.
According to (1999), adult learners in most situations have to plan from scratch, in other words, be self-creative. However, it is not enough that such learners are dependent to what they discover along the way. There is a need for them to validate the credibility and factualness of the knowledge they learned by themselves by using the standards of evaluation present in formal learning. Thus, the role of professional mentors in monitoring is important. study clearly indicates that adult education uses both traditional and non-traditional pedagogical methods and guaranteed that the combination of both can obtain more positive results.
As people move from the ‘field’ of adult education to a ‘moorland’ of adult learning, so the guiding paradigms of adult education, its theory, purposes and practices, need reconfiguring and new conceptual resources are required to make sense of the contemporary conjuncture and of the place of adult education within that (1997). affirmed that it would be difficult to argue that adult education can sustain itself, as it is presently constituted in the face of the challenges posed by late modernity/post-modernity.
As compared from other authors, (1997) conducted his research focusing on the importance of interdisciplinarity and integrative learning in adult education. He deemed that experiential learning is more appropriate in adult education especially in terms of interdisciplinary studies, thus, involving interaction to either formal or non-formal learning environments. Adults learn in a variety of ways. Regardless of whether their learning is derived in a formal or an informal setting, the way in which they learn is closely connected with the diverse experiences in their life (1997). Previous adult education scholars like Lindeman and also practitioners noted the apparent tendency of adult learners to integrate their experiences in an attempt to assign meaning. This fact means that adult learners are inclined to self-learning and personal discovery. study proves the mutual effectiveness of traditional and discovery or collaborative learning in adult education. Similarly, he acknowledged the unique abilities of both approaches especially in terms of knowledge assimilation of interdisciplinary subjects. The individual evaluation of teaching methods particularly the teacher in traditional classroom setting was also included. Based on the findings, an important factor in many adult students’ evaluation of teaching effectiveness is whether their instructor has been able to make connections between course content, the rest of their study program, and their own experience (1997; 1996). At the end of his research after his recommendation for further investigation, suggested that interdisciplinary studies and integrative learning is more appropriately match the needs of learning (adult) population when its resources are manage carefully.
In the hotel industry, the employees are adult and the learning attitude and motivators are different from the children. To motivate the adult to learn, the implication method is different from children and necessary to understand adult learning process. Knowles’ theory of andragogy is specifically for adult learning. It emphasised that adults are self-directed and expect to take responsibility for decision. According to (1984), adults are themselves a richer resource for one another’s learning than youths. They are less dependent on the vicarious experiences of teachers, experts and textbooks. Adults have a broader foundation of past experience on which to base new learning. From their past experience, adults may have more fixed habits of thought and ways of doing a task, and sometimes this gets in the way of their better habits. When the trainer conducts training at the workplace and the participants are more experienced than the trainer, the participants are not willing to listen or even challenge the trainer, as they believe they are the experts. In this situation, trainer may consider allow the trainees to take the leading role and allow them to have more experience sharing. As (1984) stated that adults learn more effectively through experiential techniques of education such as discussion or problem solving. Moreover, adult have a strong need to apply what being designed not only according to the needs of the learner, but also learner can apply new acquired skills or knowledge at workplace.
From Knowles’ adult theory, it shown that trainer is one of the reasons that motivate or de-motivate employee on learning. As adults are more experience, employees might not realize the importance of learning. On the other hand, it can also be seen that employee are motivated to learn if it is related and enhancing their knowledge. This is related to “skills and competency pay reward”. Employee believed that when there is enhancement (learning) among them, the skills and competency would lead to better reward. However, the concept and challenges of adult learning is deemed to be another interesting field of study in association with this research topic. Thus, it is expected that adult learning contains potentialities for further research.
2.2.2 Culture and learning
Zammuto and O’Connor (1992) argue that culture is the single most important factor contributing for the success or failure of organisations. Some suggests a psychological theory of the link between organisational culture and business performance. Some perceived culture as a reward of work for if we sacrifice much to the organisation – a form of return to the exerted effort. Responsive culture provides the organisation the ability to be culturally inventive which is also related to leadership and top management has the responsibilities for building strong cultures. Leaders create the social reality of the organization; they mould the values and attend to the vision and mission of the organization. Relationship culture is also generally constructed and it reflects the meanings that are constituted in communication and that form commonly acknowledged definitions of the situation ( 1991).
In comparison to earlier times, organisational culture is more in demand and recognised at present ( 1992) due to competition, increased globalisation, diversified workforce and formation of business coalitions. This in turn led to product and strategy innovation; integration among organisational units to improve efficiency, quality, speed in manufacturing and distribution of services; introduction of new technologies; international transactions; facilitation of teamwork; and management of the diverse human resource (1994). In particular, an organisation’s shared history and stability can contribute to the internalisation and institutionalisation of specific attitudes in individuals (1987). Organisational culture is the pattern of basic assumptions that are invented, discovered or developed to help cope with problems of external adaptation and internal integration within an organization (1990). The patterns of assumptions may incorporate values, norms, rules, myths, stories and rituals; must have worked well enough in the past to be considered valid; and must be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think and feel in relation to the external and internal problems encountered by the organisation.
In a study conducted by (2006), they assessed the employee reward preferences using samples from a total of 60 companies operating in two culturally distinct countries namely Finland and China particularly Hong Kong. They analysed their data in relation to cross-national framework with relevant focused on culture. In their results and discussion, they emphasized the benefits of adopting an inclusive reward management system that mainly includes a mixture of financial and non-financial rewards. The reward preferences of employees are deeply rooted on the idea that personal characteristics and other background factors beyond culture are very imperative to think about especially in the efforts of making organizational rewards system. What is not taken into account in this research is the identification of extent on how these rewards system might affect the total performance of the employees. Broadly analysed, there is a supposition that some rewards system might vary – may it be in form and application in specific areas of the organization. While it is true that rewards system are directed to the eventual progression of employee performance, it is also deemed that inappropriate implementation may create some difficulties. But then again, with the involvement of various essential factors in the creation and management of rewards system, such problems will be minimised if not totally eliminated. The recognition that culture is relative might also affect the rewards preferences of the companies. This means that the diversity in culture especially in multinational companies employing locals and foreign employees might significantly affect the whole process.
Similarly related, (2005) in her critique of Hofstede’s model tested the applicability of the framework across four countries. She provided a cross-cultural comparison of rewards preferences and the findings reveal that human values particularly those that are bounded by national culture ignore the probable influence of a variety of other appropriate factors. Although Hofstede’s model is comprehensive both in practical and theoretical application, its contribution to the reward arena is subject to other culturally-related factors. The result of this study clarifies the argument of cultural relativity as raised in the study of (2006).
The organisational culture affects the applicability of Knowles’ theory. Knowles was an American Adult Educator and the creation of the andragogy was focused on North American point of view. To apply this theory in Hong Kong, it is important to understand the organizational culture. To effectively implement the reward system and motivate the employee to learn, the support from the organization is essential. It can be seen that the organization culture affects the HR strategy and the approach of the trainer. Schermerhon (1998) defined organisational culture as “the system of shared action values, and beliefs that develops within an organization and guides the behavior of its methods” (). Culture is invisible ( 1991). In Hong Kong, the student or even the adult learners are passive on learning due to the high power distance. High power distance means the subordinates would be unwilling to question superiors and would look to them for directions (1999). The adult learners show their respect to the trainer in a way that less question to be asked during the training session. The trainees are more willing to wait for the instruction from the trainer instead of proactively asking questions. Besides, due to the Confucian dynamism is a common cultural characteristic in Asia context (1999). Chinese people are ‘face-conscious’ and the sense of dignity; self-respect and prestige are strong (1991). During the training session, a need to maintain a sense of respect in front of the subordinates is essential (1989). Hence, it can be seen that reward system is not the only way to motivate the employees to learn, hotel management is necessary to consider the trainer’s approach and the culture. As stated in adult learning, the concept of culture and learning is another potential area of further research.
CHAPTER III
Methodology
This chapter presents the methods and procedures utilized by the researcher in pursuing answers to the questions raised in the study. It also provides information on the description of the methods and procedures that were conceptualized and constructed in order to obtain the needed data and information that will be most useful to the study. Details on how the accumulated data were analyzed and interpreted as well as how the conclusion was drawn is discussed in full extent in this section. This provides justification of the means in which the study was accomplished and at the same time helps in giving purpose and strength to the validity and reliability of the collected information that makes this particular research practice truthful and analytic.
Specifically, this research chapter covers the following discussions: the research design and approach, the primary data collection, the secondary data collection, the research tools, the validity and reliability of the collected data, and the locale and database of the study.
Research Design and Approach
This study is descriptive in terms if its purpose, qualitative in terms of its process, case study in terms of methodology, and applied in terms of its outcome. The descriptive approach is used to describe the nature or condition (1994) of PCCW in relation to its motivational initiatives towards organizational learning. The advantages of this approach include quickness and flexibility and serve as an extension or a forerunner to a piece of exploratory research, a valuable research approach employed to discover what is happening; seek new insights; ask questions; and/or evaluate a phenomenon in a new light ( 2002). Further, the qualitative approach is used to measure useful data that are not immeasurable, such as feelings, beliefs, thoughts, and others. Qualitative information derived from the research then serves as basis for programme recommendations. Lastly, the case study approach is for the development of full understanding of the case as possible and is not linked with any particular research technique. This method involves the researcher to inquire deeper and examine thorough behaviors of a person or a circumstance. It also includes the discovery and identification of all the important variables which have contributed to the history or development of the chosen subject. This means that the researcher is going to gather data which include the past experiences and present condition of the subject as well as the environment. It will attempt to find out how these factors relate to one another and how they have affected the subject. Case study, like qualitative approach, allows a variety of information and facts to be collected and to be used for development of practical recommendations or solutions to problems identified.
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