Research Articles Base: Counterfeit Drugs

What are Counterfeit Drugs?

What are Counterfeit Drugs?             Counterfeit drugs or Counterfeit medicines are part of the broader phenomenon of substandard pharmaceuticals-medicines manufactured below established standards for safety, quality and efficacy. They are produced and sold with the intent to deceptively represent its origin, authenticity or effectiveness. A counterfeit drug may be one which does not contain any active ingredients, contains lesser quality of active ingredients, contains entirely incorrect active ingredients and which is sold with incorrect or fake packing.   Factors that Increase the Circulation of Counterfeit Medicines 1. Because of globalization, free trade and international commerce, the movement of counterfeit medicines is easier and more difficult to control. 2. Legal systems are often not equipped to deal with the extremely serious consequences of counterfeit medicines and penalties for counterfeiters are often inadequate. 3. The increasing demand for medicines and the lack of knowledge and information among consumers to identify counterfeit medicines. 4. In many countries, the social security or health insurance systems are inefficient, forcing the patients to buy medicines out of their pocket. This forces the patients to look for cheaper medicines. 5. The regulations on the pharmaceutical industries in most countries are ineffective.   Possible Solutions to the Problem 1. Appropriate Legislation and Penal Sanctions – Counterfeit medicines must have a clear legal definition in order to establish legislations and sanctions appropriate to the crime. Because of its effect on public health and human life, counterfeiting of medicines must be taken seriously by governments and international bodies. 2. International Harmonization – In order to have a more effective global approach to counterfeiting of medicines, legal and administrative processes must have a common approach. 3. Sufficient Administrative and Regulatory Capacity – Coordinated action at the local level between health authorities, police, customs, judiciary institutions to ensure proper regulation, control, investigation and prosecution. 4. International Information Networks – to monitor the traffic of goods, exchange information, issue alerts from country to country, region to region. 5. Evaluation of Medicine Prices – excessive price gaps or extremely high prices in countries that has no pharmaceutical products regulation Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

What are Counterfeit Drugs?

What are Counterfeit Drugs? Counterfeit drugs or Counterfeit medicines are part of the broader phenomenon of substandard phar...

Tomography Angiography and Conventional Angiography

This paper discusses about the differences between Computed Tomography Angiography and Conventional Angiography in terms of quality and reliability.  The two are compared and contrasted based on their characteristics. At the end of the paper, Computed Tomography is recommended to diagnose many diseases and it shows many advantages over the conventional angiography.             Diseases in blood vessels including those of the brain and the heart can be diagnosed through angiography. Angiography is used to diagnose pathology of blood vessels such as blockage caused by plaque build up. Traditionally, X-ray or the conventional angiography was used but due to the development of technology, Magnetic Resonance, ultrasound, and Computed Tomography slowly replaced x-ray angiography.             Basically, angiography is a radiographic technique where a radio-opaque contrast material is injected into a blood vessel for the purpose of identifying anatomy on x-ray. This technique is used to image arteries in the brain, heart, kidneys, gastrointestinal tract, aorta, neck or carotids, chest, limbs and pulmonary circuits. This technique is carried out in a laboratory by a trained cardiologist or radiologist and technicians. The doctor will first need to insert an intravenous, IV, line into one of the blood vessels of the patient’s arm, chest, neck or groin. Then, a catheter is inserted through the IV and into the patient’s blood vessels using x-ray machine that produces real-time pictures. When the catheter is already placed into the blood vessel of interest, contrasts material is injected and pictures are taken. It usually takes time for the doctors to get the catheter into the right spot. There are different types of angiography depending on the type of test such as cerebral angiography for the head, extremity angiography for arm or leg, renal angiography for the kidneys and pulmonary angiography for the lungs.             Conventional angiography or cardiac catheterization is the diagnostic of standard for determining the presence, location, and severity of coronary artery disease. Conventional angiography has long been used in the medical field for its high effectiveness. However, this technique is invasive, labor intensive due to its procedure, costly and has a significant risk of complications. This technique involves passing a catheter onto the right or left side of the heart. It is also used to determine pressure and blood flow in the heart’s chambers, collect blood samples from the heart and examine the arteries of the heart with an x-ray technique called fluoroscopy. Fluoroscopy provides real-time visualization of the x-ray images on a screen and provides a permanent record of the procedure.             Conventional angiography carries risks depending on organ undergoing a test. These risks may include bleeding and pain at IV site; a risk that the soft plastic catheters could damage the blood vessels; the risks the blood clot could form on the catheters and later block blood vessels in the body; and the risks that the contrast material could damage the kidneys especially in diabetes patients aside from some discomfort and it mandates routine follow-up care.             On the other hand, there are other angiography techniques that are more advantageous than the conventional type. One of these is the Computed Tomography Angiography, CTA. CTA is replacing conventional angiography because this test is less invasive and easier to perform than conventional angiography while obtaining results just as accurate as the results obtained from conventional angiography. CTA is a three-dimensional technique that provides information about the imaged vessels and adjacent structures. It enables the display of vascular structures aided by injections of contrast medium. The multislice scanner enables the system to display the entire vascular system including small vascular exits, branches, embolisms or dissection membranes. This is one of the advantages of CTA, with this type of imaging the physician can easily conduct and decide for surgical planning using the image produce through a CTA. CTA requires only venous vascular access and is an outpatient examination with lesser risks than conventional angiography. At minimum, CTA requires a thin section helical CT acquisition coupled with a power injection of intravenous iodinated contrast medium. A multidetector-row CT or MDCT, that is capable of detecting and reliably diagnosing pathology in the adjacent structures and end organs of the vessel is commonly used and preferred for CTA (CIGNA, 2005). For cardiac and some aortic CTA, an electrocardiograph-gated acquisition should be performed that allows retrospective reconstruction of the scan volume at multiple phases through the cardiac cycle. The advantages of Computed Tomography angiography over conventional angiography were studied by the American Heart Association and found out that the advantages and use of CTA varies depending on the type of disease being evaluated. For occlusive disease of the extracranial carotid arteries, CTA has higher degree of accuracy compared with conventional angiography. For thoracic aorta, one major advantage of CTA is the ability to accurately evaluate the surrounding structures within the thorax for pathology that may provide alternative explanations for the patient’s symptoms necessary for the treatment. For abdominal aorta diseases, CTA has high accuracy in measuring vessel lengths, diameters and angles. With peripheral arterial disease, CTA can produce image not visualized by conventional angiography aside from the greater longitudinal coverage of multidetector-row CT. Generally, CTA has many advantages over the conventional angiography. These advantages include visualization of the anatomy from multiple angles and in multiple planes; improved visualization of soft tissues and other adjacent anatomic structures; less invasiveness and fewer complications. However, it is still a standard for coronary artery diseases to use the conventional angiography or the Cardiac Catheterization because there is still no sufficient evidence to support the use of CTA with suspected coronary artery disease. CTA also involves radiation exposure and the potential for ionated contrast related reaction  as well as temporal and spatial resolution. Recommendation of the use of either CTA or the conventional angiography depends on the type of the disease to be imaged. However, for its accuracy and advantages over the conventional one, CTA is recommended due to above mentioned characteristics, quality and reliability and due to it less invasiveness than conventional angiography..   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Tomography Angiography and Conventional Angiography

This paper discusses about the differences between Computed Tomography Angiography and Conventional Angiography in terms of qu...

Sample Essay Anti-Inflammatory Drugs in Sports

Anti-Inflammatory Drugs in Sports   Introduction             It can be said that all athletes (sportsmen and women) are prone to injury.  Sports haven been developed from the natural capabilities of the human mind and body and so, when partaken at modest level, few sports involve great risk of physical injuries.  This situation changes drastically when sporting pursuits are undertaken at higher levels of competition. Herein, if an athlete would want achieve his/her goal of winning, the pressure is put in the structural framework of the body which sometimes result to injuries. Many of the sports carry their own peculiar additional risks of injury to the body.  For example, the boxer may suffer repeated blows to the face causing extensive bruising and laceration and football player may receive kicks to the legs resulting in bruising or even bone fracture.  Whatever the cause or nature of the injury, one of its inevitable features will be the occurrence of an inflammatory reaction at the damaged area.              In order to alleviate the suffering of these athletes, there are different kinds of drugs that can be used for such injuries or pain.  One of which is the use of anti-inflammatory drugs. Because of the issue of performance enhancing drugs used by many athletes, the term Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) is being used.   Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug is capable of reducing or eliminating pain.  Its anti-inflammatory actions are used to lessen problems link with swelling of injuries and pain.  Anti-inflammatory drugs are the approved types of drugs that can be used in sports (Rahusen, Weinhold & Almekinders, 2004) for muscle injuries and other pains cause by sports activities. .  NSAIDS that are more commonly used as treatment of injuries and pains caused in athletes include ibuprofen, diclofenac, naproxen, ketoprofen, and compounds like indomethacin and vioxyl.   Use of NSAID in Sports             As mentioned there are different kinds of NSAID that can be used by athletes. Hence, the following will discuss the use of each type of NSAID and the adverse effect of each drug for sportsmen and women.   Aspirin or Indomethacin One of the kinds of NSAID is aspirin or indomethacin, these anti-inflammatory drugs is used as analgesics and recommended fro treatment of sports injuries.    Pharmacological action The analgesics’ anti-inflammatory and antipyretic activity of NSAID is based on their ability to inhibit prostaglandin synthesis.   Adverse effects The most common adverse effects associated with NSAIDs are gastro-intestinal, including nausea, dyspepsia and ulcers. Topical administration of NSAIDs may offer an effective and possibly safer alternative route of administration.   Muscle relaxants Use in sport There are a number of drugs, such as benzodiazepines and dantrolene sodium, which have muscle relaxant effects. They are not generally recommended for the treatment of athletic injury.   Benzodiazepines and other anxiolytics Use in sport A number of classes of drugs have been used as anxiolytics, including alcohol, beta blockers and benzodiazepines. The first two classes have been described above, as they are restricted in certain sports.   Pharmacological action Benzodiazepines variously reduce the activity of a number of central neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine, serotonin and noradrenaline. The anti-anxiety effect is primarily through release of gamma-aminobutyric acid, which inhibits the release of serotonin.   Adverse effects Benzodiazepines are relatively free of adverse effects. However, they are liable to produce dependency if used for extended periods. Benzodiazepines may also be used by athletes for insomnia. Under these circumstances, athletes need to be aware of the ‘hangover’ effect of these drugs.   Cough and cold preparations Use in sport The use of medication for these self-limiting conditions is questionable. The only potential use for drugs is for the control of symptoms such as headache, fever, runny nose and cough. However, many of the drugs found in OTC cough and cold remedies, particularly the alpha-1-sympathomimetic decongestants, are banned by the IOC, although there are cut-off concentrations in the urine for these drugs.   Pharmacological action Apart from the sympathomimetic decongestants discussed previously, cough and cold medicines may contain analgesics (paracetamol, codeine), antihistamines (e.g. triprolidine, astemizole), imidazole decongestants (e.g. xylometazoline) cough suppressants (e.g. pholcodine) and expectorants (e.g. ipecacuanha), all of which are permitted by the IOC.   Adverse effects In general, cough and cold preparations are taken for short periods of time and therefore side-effects are limited. However, nasal decongestants are liable to produce rebound congestion if used for more than 1 week. Sedating antihistamines may have adverse effects on performance in most sports.   Antidiarrhoeals Use in sport First-line treatment for diarrhoea is oral rehydration therapy (ORT). Antimotility drugs may be used for short-term symptomatic relief of acute diarrhoea if it is likely to affect performance.   Pharmacological action ORT enhances the absorption of water and replaces electrolytes. Antimotility drugs (codeine, diphenoxylate, loperamide) are opioids with a direct relaxant effect on the smooth muscle of the gastrointestinal tract.   Adverse effects Tolerance and dependence may develop with prolonged use of antimotility drugs. Loperamide may produce abdominal cramps, drowsiness and skin reactions.   Nutritional supplements Use in sport In an attempt to enhance performance through ergogenic aids, without con-travening IOC regulations, many athletes have used nutritional supplements. The manufacture and sale of nutritional supplements is not as closely regulated as that for drugs. Nutritional supplements may therefore contain banned substances or their precursors, which produce the same metabolites as banned substances in the urine. The use of nutritional supplements may therefore lead to a positive dope test result.   Pharmacological action Manufacturers may make exaggerated claims regarding the ergogenic properties of their products. There is little, if any, evidence that nutritional supplements possess ergogenic properties in athletes consuming a balanced diet.   Adverse effects Some nutritional supplements have the potential for harm. Creatine has been the subject of many studies, but results are equivocal as to whether it produces ergogenic effects. There are few reliable scientific data on possible adverse effects of creatine, but its potential effect on renal dysfunction and electrolyte imbalance, leading to a predisposition to dehydration and heat-related illness, suggests caution in its use   Conclusion             The use of anti-inflammatory drug, specifically NSAID has been recommended to help Although NSAID are useful for athletes who is suffering from pain or injuries, sportsmen and women should be aware that using NSAID as treatment might effectively reduce swelling, pain and inflammation. But, the athlete must also think that these drugs have adverse effects and the more they are overusing it the more it will affect their body.   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Sample Essay Anti-Inflammatory Drugs in Sports

Anti-Inflammatory Drugs in Sports Introduction It can be said that all athletes (sportsmen and women) are prone to injur...

Top