Research Articles Base: Cinema

Position paper on the advantages and disadvantages of cinema

Introduction             It has been said that technology becomes the primary factor of shaping the world and people’s consciousness. Since, our society now is on the period of post-modernity, everything seems so rapid and borderlines were already unimaginable. What I mean is that, because of the rapidity on the development of technology, everything are reachable and accessible in any point of the world, even to the remotest place a man will be. Technological advancement brought by the wonders of man’s rationality, though, how small the mind is, its capacity to create grandiose invention and innovation cannot be denied. The unending struggle of anyone to provide a better place and better world is the byproduct of man’s ingenuity.             By and large, technology indeed occupies the best position of influencing and shaping the structure and system of the present civilization, bringing it to the place wherein no one is private and inaccessible. Everything revolves around the world of technology, it even dictates what we should think of, and what behavior are we to act. Nonetheless, we owe significantly to the advantages of technology which makes one’s life easier. Cinema: Ancient yet powerful             Our idea of cinema springs from different theoretical and conceptual constructs. However, we can further understand the theoretical constructs when we personally experience what we call cinema. In the age of industrial revolution when the idea of cinema came into existence, but, long before the scientific discoveries and technological development, cinema is already in existence. Furthermore, Greeks and Romans popularized the idea of theater in which in the new age known to be a cinema. There are at least two concepts closely related to our idea of cinema– cinema as a medium and as a technological structure.             Although, we understand cinema as ancient and old, yet, performs powerful role in the society.             The cinema as a medium plays a vital role in the social and political life of the society. This medium purposely helps discharge ideologies, political beliefs, and cultural beliefs in which strengthens the life of a society. On the other hand, can be an agent for radical and revolutionary programs pursued by few political maneuvers and social-oriented groups. The rolling of films can be seen vividly through the use of cinema. Moreover, cinema as a medium does not forfeit its ideological and social use and purpose although quite clear is the economical side of it.             The cinema as a technological structure purposively aims to generate economical abundance and profits. Audiences who are more inclined to hang out in movie cinemas or theaters contribute to the profits and income of the owners. Borrowing the Marxist doctrine, capitalists acquire more profit with the structure and at the same time the production of films contribute much income to its producers and executives. Advantages             There are at least four important advantages of cinema both as a medium and a structure.             First, as an entertainment, cinema provides a wider screen and great soundings for visual and auditory effects. People frequently used to go to cinema prefer the more enticing and exciting visualization and auditory gratification rather than buying a DVD to watch it in small screen. The level of entertainment goes not only on the film which people are interesting to watch but also the fact that cinemas enhances viewers gratification to watch certain films by giving them wider screens and digital sounding effects.             Second, cinema as a medium fosters awareness to its viewers. Yes, cinema as a structure does not explicitly promote awareness because without the production of films, cinemas are futile structures. But, because cinema becomes a medium of another medium, it concretely and significantly, fosters awareness to its viewers. The fact that we watch a film in a more interesting place like cinema, unconsciously it affects our behavior and mental rubrics. In every encounter of any genre of film, we are oriented to different level of awareness. Although, we only recognize the superficial thing of watching a film in a cinema, but in deeper level, we adopt and form a kind of awareness;             Third, cinema promotes knowledge development. Again, our notion of cinema as a medium purports its promotion to knowledge development and formation. The more we are engage in watching films the more we are oriented to different realities of life. Whether theses films are fiction or non-fiction, it contributes to further harness our knowledge. Cinema, in this case, helps us development our knowledge. Moreover, our exposure to wider screen and digital sounding effects also contribute to our understanding of realities presented in the films we are watching. Hence, more than our ability of figmentation is the benefit of knowledge we can gain.             Lastly, cinema promotes value formation regardless of what kind and what effect. Cinema as both a structure and medium plays a vital role in the value formation of an individual and the society as a whole. Through the rolling of films, we are slanted into processing the visual and auditory utterances in our mind and whether we are conscious or unconscious with this process, it gradually forms a kind of value that later on will manifest in our behavior. Disadvantages             There are also at least two major disadvantages which I think are beyond our usual and superficial views about its advantages First, cinema is used to produce and advance the economic interest of the few. Since, only few individuals in the society can able to establish the structure, the more movie goers go to cinemas, the higher the profit is gained by the owners. Moreover, owners’ power to permit films to be premiered manifests their advancement of economic profit rather than their social responsibility.             Second, cinema as a medium can be use to promote hegemony. This only means that since films to be shown in cinemas should undergone several evaluation and selection process, in most capitalist society, films that bolsters higher profits are permitted while films that are low in budget but offers substantial and relevant issues about the society are deem to ignore. Moreover, those films which carry messages and ideologies favorable to the few are pushed and promoted while films that are dangerous to the status quo are prohibited.                                       Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Position paper on the advantages and disadvantages of cinema

Introduction It has been said that technology becomes the primary factor of shaping the world and people’s consciousnes...

Sample Essay The Emperor and the Assassin: Changing Roles of Women in Chinese Cinema

The Emperor and the Assassin: Changing Roles of Women in Chinese Cinema             Despite of development regarding Chinese film making, the role of women in the film is the same until the new aged films. Mostly, in some previous films in western countries and even in the orients, the roles of women could be a typical mother, an old maid, a battered wife or a sex symbol, while men usually get the pleasant roles like good father, an emperor, and a hero or warrior saving his countrymen and hi country, though also some of the films in Chinese cinema depict weak male characters. The reason is that, in nature, women are weak. That is the perception of some of us regarding the characteristics and capabilities of women. That is why before, this perception was also applied in the cinema especially in Chinese films. The roles of the women became limited compared to men. And even in the previous time, Foster (1999) reported that filmmaking for some major studios have been almost exclusively the realm of men. This is the reason why feminists groups disagreeing in this kind of treatment to the women especially in the film industry.  In Chinese film, the ideological pressures between the Eastern and Western feminism have often been trumped by visual splendor and interpretation of melodramatic female suffering. General images of female suffering are common through classical East Asian Cinema. It is not a simple thing to relinquish suffering as the entire cultures are established upon aestheticizing it, and other established upon ignoring it, it lingers forever the lowest common denominator of entire human experience. It is now apparently impossible to remark on the image of women in rural Chinese films without placing that commentary within a frame of transitional consumerism and orientalism. Frequently, these are rural narratives that idealize a magnificent aesthetic of rural female suffering as an exportable vision of a China, framing its history in premodern rural as an international cinematic commodity.  Cinemas often reflects situation by means of both narrative and authors. Movies that featured women, told from a feminine point of view and directed by women are becoming numerous in China. Few well-known female filmmakers joined by some new voices. Although from the beginning, women have participated in the development of Chinese cinema, it was only in the 80s that the feminist theme started to emerge. And after that, many female authors have pursued the forerunners of women’s cinema. Films dealing with women from a feminine point of view are scrupulously devoid of sentimentalism. They are usually stories that are dramatic about the difficulties of women have the asserting their personal individuality and collective dignity.  Films are often the reflection of a certain individual and even a particular society. These may have sense since most of the films tackle love, relationships, frienships, and even serious problems such as poverty, government problems and even the relationship between countries. It also means that some of the films featured women reflects their current situation in the society. But as the time change, and another era comes, the role of the women in the cinema may change, as the new breed of filmmakers create a new impression towards the role of women not just in film but also in the society. But in the decade of the nineties, the role of women in the cinemas, especially in the filmmaking, had significantly changed. In this time, the women film directors were more visible for the first time since the early days of filmmaking. Chinese actresses change their attitudes to gain better roles which they deserved. Like Gong Li, a Chinese actress, used her charm, talents, sexiness, and natural beauty to accomplish the roles she wanted. And in fact, Gong Li is as revered as the Julia Roberts of Chinese cinema. In our present time, the role of the women in the cinema became momentous, especially in the genre of action films, where Zhang Ziyi opened a new opportunity in the international arena for Chinese actresses. Because mostly, some of action stars in this genre were dominating by men such as Jet Li and Jacky Chan. These Chinese women in Chinese cinema were in demand in the international films. Their kind of acting especially in the field of action films was useful enough to change the stereotype regarding the roles of women in the film industry. And also, their combat moves in the action cinemas were also used by other foreign actresses and actors as well. These are good indications that women can be competitive in the Chinese cinema. And according to Maria Barbieri (2002), the year 2002 was unquestionably the year of immense female performances of Chinese actresses and interesting characters of females. Many Chinese directors are acknowledged for creating ongoing relationships with actresses who characterizes the filmmakers’ concerns and give entrée into other realm involving women, the female psyche, and the issues regarding feminine subjectivity. Concerning this, Chan develops a connection with Lindzay Chan in these two features that allows him to explore not only the subjects of cultural hybridity but also issues involving women and their apprehensions. As the time pass by, Chinese films have tended to depict weak male characters facing identity crises, like the film “The Missing Gun” by Lu Chuan (2001) and the film “I Love Beijing” by Ning Ying (2001), and female characters are much stronger. The stereotype of the feeble, miserable woman doesn’t work anymore, because female characters are tormented but do not anticipate the resolution to their existential problems to come from male characters. These things are good signs for the women in the film industry where the roles of the female were not typical anymore. It is truly amazing that the roles of women in Chinese cinema are evolving. It is an indication that women, especially Chinese are becoming competitive and breaking the traditional roles of women in Chinese cinema industry. It also means that aside from the role of the women in the cinemas, their roles in the society also evolved into a greater height and ready for more challenging roles they will encounter in the near future. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Sample Essay The Emperor and the Assassin: Changing Roles of Women in Chinese Cinema

The Emperor and the Assassin: Changing Roles of Women in Chinese Cinema Despite of development regarding Chinese film making...

MEDIA STUDIES ESSAY

Ly Verduyn Media Studies Essay   To what extend have Hindu values and ideologies dominated the representational agenda of Indian cinema?               Cinema was first introduced in India in July 7, 1896, when the  Brother’s Cinematographe showed six soundless short films in the Watson Hotel in Bombay.             Indian cinema is named Bollywood. This name is conflation of Bombay, the old name of Mumbai, and Hollywood, the center of the United State film industry. Bollywood is also commonly referred to as Hindi cinema. The Bollywood industry is usually tha largest in terms of films produced and office receipts.             The first Indian film concerned with honor, sacrifice and mighty deeds. For in that period many “mythologicals” were made and took India by storm.             In the 1930’s, Indian films adopted a modernist outlook essentially converging of society, addressing social differences of caste, class and the relations between the sexes. The most important film in the period,  (1935), the director created a tale of love frustrated by social distinction and masculine ineffectuality. This film focused on indecision, frustration and a focus on failure and longing rather than on achievement.             Indian cinema has made a unique contribution towards evolving a new popular culture by reconstructing the traditional performative themes and idioms, using western narrative forms and positioning implicitly in the narrative many contemporary tensions and encoded messages of social change. It provided an intimate cinematic interpretation of Indian identity in its sentiments, outlook and diversity. Indian Cinema has built its narrative around the notion of enlightenment, taking up a well-informed discourse on the human connection with the metaphysical, at the same time presenting a sound critique of the orthodox worldview, age-old social hierarchy and the social tensions and suffering. Some of the major concerns of Indian literature were also incorporated in their films. During the classical period when film-making was at its highest artistic peak, it fulfilled an important social function by translating the main agenda of Indian society at that time by interpreting human suffering in an inequitable society, and to release and reinstate the cultural traditions from the influences of the recent colonial past. The basic emotional basis or structure of Indian films has its roots in living a life in the puritan, sublime love through a cycle of union and separation. The protagonist was presented essentially as an introvert, a restless soul in search of his identity in love and suffering. But the large part of the cinema is characterized by the reflection of internal suffering of a nation at large. The film-makers submerge the nation’s pain in highly appealing story-telling, which interpreted the uprootment and loss in different ways and help people incoming terms with it. Hindu films act as the interface between the traditions of Indian society and of the disturbing Western intrusions. The function of Hindu film is to externalize an inner psychological conflict and handle the inner passion generated by social and political processes as problems created by events and persons.                 Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

MEDIA STUDIES ESSAY

Ly Verduyn Media Studies Essay To what extend have Hindu values and ideologies dominated the representational agenda of Indian cinema?...

Third Cinema and Film Comparisons

Third Cinema and Film Comparisons               The movie entitled ‘The Mission’ focuses on the conquest of Spain and Portugal over South America, and depicts the events related to the Treaty of Madrid in 1750, when Spain relinquished part of South America to Portugal, and turns this episode into an allegory for the mid-80s struggle of Latin America (2005). The focus of this movie is on the clash between religion and political power, which determines the fate of the South American natives that time. The movie entitled ‘1492, Conquest of Paradise’ tackles the conquest of Christopher Columbus of the New World, and features also the desire of the conquistadors’ for colonization, gold, power, and influence. Both the films discuss the political, religious, social and historical influence of the European conquerors to the natives. It should be kept in mind that during these times, the number of territories and colonies, and gold reserves are the means of measurement for a nation to be considered to be performing well in their economy. Due to the competition between Spain and Portugal to expand their territories and resources, many lands have been conquered, including parts of South America, Asia, and the Native Americas. With the discovery and fast development of science, Europeans during those time had the power and the means to further expand their knowledge and at the same time, to fund and support the explorations and colonization of other lands.             One scene in the movie ‘1492, Conquest of Paradise’ shows Christopher Columbus kneeling on the shore to show his happiness of stepping onto the ground again. This scene not only depicts Columbus’ desire to step out of his ship, but also is symbolic of showing that his goal of discovering new lands and other personal goals can already come true. This action signifies the conquistadors’ hunger for land, knowledge, power, and gold, and the movie ‘The Mission’ depicts this as well. Both the movies’ dramatic developments include the slow drama of discovering the land, of loving the land, then the need to fight for the land and its inhabitants. The goal of both of these movies is not only for entertainment or for illustrating history, but also as a means of expressing the desire of the natives for freedom and liberation, as described by the concept of the Third Cinema by Gabriel. The general role of the Europeans as both the movies progress is as a villain, who are responsible for the destruction and the deaths of many natives in the land because they have the weapons and means to do so. The maltreatment and the violence of the Europeans during that time reflects the concept of the Third Cinema, as the movies become a means to fight oppression from the colonizers, and to bring about realization that the Westerners’ possess the characteristic of “ethnocentrism” over other cultures. The movies depict the concept of the Third Cinema during the fight scenes in the movies between the colonizers and the natives. The fight scenes also become symbolic as a way of the natives to fight for their freedom against the colonizers and to avenge their situation of violating their rights and humanity.  Aside from culture, religion also plays a vital role in these movies, as this aspect underlies the intentions of the colonizers to gather resources, specifically gold, from the natives. The use of Christianity ‘lures’ the natives to pay tribute to religion and to the missionaries as well, and this resulted to the colonizers’ abuse of their power. This also gave them the access to the resources of the natives, especially their gold reserves, and the greed of the colonizers for gold gave them the reason to abuse the natives, which paved way for the natives’ desire for freedom and peace.             Both the movies ‘Yo, la peor de Todas’ and ‘La otra Conquista’, were portrayed in Mexico, during the time of its intellectual and religious development, and the characters’ dilemma regarding religion. The movie ‘Yo, la peor de Todas’ or ‘I, the Worst of All’ describes the life of Sor Juana Ines dela Cruz, a famous nun, whose reputation as an incisive and erudite writer, scholar, and poet has reached the intellectual and social elite of Spain (2002). The story illustrates how a nun is torn between her religious responsibilities and her desire for expression through writing. This movie is related to ‘La otra Conquista’ or ‘The Other Conquest’, by depicting Topiltzin’s conquest of merging his cultural Aztec beliefs and Christianity. Both the movies’ dramatic developments include the leading characters’ confusion with their religion and then the realization of possessing a great faith for Christianity by the influence of the people around them. The goal of these movies is not only to illustrate the lives of the leading characters, but also to inform that the role of religion is very crucial for a person to adopt a certain way of life, perception and belief. Similar with the other films mentioned earlier, the role of the colonizers in these films determines the decisions and the choice of the way of life of the leading characters. The colonizers influence their decisions and most especially how they perceive religion, which becomes essential in changing their lifestyle and culture. Aside from the desire of the colonizers to acquire power and resources from their colony, religion deepens their relationship with them. In relation to the concept of the Third Cinema, the use of religion to repress the culture and traditions of the natives was a very effective way of inculcating the values and teachings of Christianity. This is somehow related also to the fact that gender becomes an issue in the society, as women are regarded inferior than men. The Church and the State, being patriarchal during those times, adds to the struggle of women to establish their rights in the society. In addition, being in favor of the elites, the Church and State implement justice subjectively, resulting to abuse of power and the demeaning of justice. The use of the shadows and bars in the movies illustrate the movies’ depiction of limited expression during those times, leading to the realization that religion plays a vital role in the different events happening in the society. The power of the Church and the State to control the perceptions of the people that time determines the issues being faced, such as gender inequality and injustice. Being an expression of the Third Cinema, these movies were able to communicate its desire for freedom from colonial influence and fight against cultural repression ( 2001). The continuous fight for gender equality in the recent times was one achievement of the goals of the Third Cinema, and the quest of the indigenous peoples to be recognized as part of a nation’s identity and culture.   Both the movies ‘Camila’ and ‘Martin Fierro’ depict the extraordinary lives of certain citizens in Argentina during the 19th century, and considered having the context of the Third Cinema. The movie ‘Martin Fierro’ exhibits the harsh living conditions experienced by a gaucho named Martin Fierro, and depicts the social injustices and political evils present during those times in Argentina. The concept of the Third Cinema reflects the people, the culture and traditions in a particular society, and treats the films as a weapon to fight oppression (2001). The situation of Martin Fierro is not exactly the same with the situation of the culturally oppressed natives in the earlier mentioned movies. However, this movie is considered a Third Cinema movie for it aims to inform the public of the moral degeneracy and the political abuse of the government officials during those times, which also becomes an expression of the desire of the people, such as Martin Fierro, for political liberation and equality. The movie ‘Camila’ depicts the forbidden relationship of a priest and a daughter of a diplomat, having an romantic affair. This movie illustrates the reality that amidst the social and political repression, there will still be unanticipated events such as what happened in the movie. This movie is a good example of a modern Third Cinema, for it does not only reflect and express the historical, political and social situation of a nation, but also tackles gender, religion, and sexuality. The movie ‘Camila’ goes beyond the concept of Third Cinema, and becomes a good venue to show the public of the reality that humanity is a complex issue and involves a good deal of understanding and study. This movie is considered a Third Cinema, for communicating to the public the reality of wanting for freedom of expressing emotions, traversing religion and social responsibilities.   The movies entitle ‘Vamonos con Pancho Villa’ and ‘Viva Zapata!’ depicts the strong regard of Mexicans for revolutionary heroes during the 20th century, and somehow represents the views and perception of the Mexican citizens during those times regarding liberation, equality and ‘machismo’. The movie of Pancho Villa is about the story of young men who joined the revolutionary army of Pancho Villa. It may not be clear how this movie becomes a Third Cinema, but it is may be because of the fact that it discusses and covers the historical, political and social situations of the citizens in Mexico in the 20th century, which illustrates their quest for liberation from hard labor under oppressive landowners. In relation to this, the image of the revolutionary hero in Mexican films was somehow altered with the concept of being “macho”. The concept of machismo somehow affected the perceptions of the revolutionaries during that time, and encouraged them to be involved in duels and fights. One scene from the movie showing the Mexican’s high regard for machismo is when Don Tiburcio denounces the idea of playing a silly game of chance with a loaded revolver in a crowded bar and then goes through with the pointlessly deadly ritual because honor requires it (2005).  (2005) also adds that showing that they are tough will cement their reputations as real men, which also motivates them to fight. In relation to the concept of Third Cinema, the idea of fighting could be a way for the revolutionary heroes to build up their ego and character in possessing a “macho” image, and be able to ward off and intimidate their enemies. In this way, their fight for freedom and equality will be easier and much more effective. Another movie is ‘Viva Zapata!’, which also tackles the issue of the Mexican revolutionary heroes, and is related to the movie of Pancho Villa. This movie is about the life of Emiliano Zapata, a child of a tenant farmer, who was joined by Pancho Villa in his rebellion against the tyrant president Porfirio Diaz (2006). Zapata fought not to conquer Mexico but to free the land for the peasant of Morelos and other southern provinces (2006). Relating it to Third Cinema, it clearly depicts the character’s longing to be free from the corruptive influence of power of the government. This movie effectively communicates to the public the effects and consequences of oppressive political power, such as exploitation, and the longing of citizens for liberation and equality in the Mexican society.   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Third Cinema and Film Comparisons

Third Cinema and Film Comparisons The movie entitled ‘The Mission’ focuses on the conquest of Spain and Portugal over Sout...

Media Studies Essay

Media Studies Essay   To what extend have Hindu values and ideologies dominated the representational agenda of Indian cinema?               Cinema was first introduced in India in July 7, 1896, when the Lumiere Brother’s Cinematographe showed six soundless short films in the Watson Hotel in Bombay.             Indian cinema is named Bollywood. This name is conflation of Bombay, the old name of Mumbai, and Hollywood, the center of the United State film industry. Bollywood is also commonly referred to as Hindi cinema. The Bollywood industry is usually tha largest in terms of films produced and office receipts.             The first Indian film concerned with honor, sacrifice and mighty deeds. For in that period many “mythologicals” were made and took India by storm.             In the 1930’s, Indian films adopted a modernist outlook essentially converging of society, addressing social differences of caste, class and the relations between the sexes. The most important film in the period,  (1935), the director created a tale of love frustrated by social distinction and masculine ineffectuality. This film focused on indecision, frustration and a focus on failure and longing rather than on achievement.             Indian cinema has made a unique contribution towards evolving a new popular culture by reconstructing the traditional performative themes and idioms, using western narrative forms and positioning implicitly in the narrative many contemporary tensions and encoded messages of social change. It provided an intimate cinematic interpretation of Indian identity in its sentiments, outlook and diversity. Indian Cinema has built its narrative around the notion of enlightenment, taking up a well-informed discourse on the human connection with the metaphysical, at the same time presenting a sound critique of the orthodox worldview, age-old social hierarchy and the social tensions and suffering. Some of the major concerns of Indian literature were also incorporated in their films. During the classical period when film-making was at its highest artistic peak, it fulfilled an important social function by translating the main agenda of Indian society at that time by interpreting human suffering in an inequitable society, and to release and reinstate the cultural traditions from the influences of the recent colonial past. The basic emotional basis or structure of Indian films has its roots in living a life in the puritan, sublime love through a cycle of union and separation. The protagonist was presented essentially as an introvert, a restless soul in search of his identity in love and suffering. But the large part of the cinema is characterized by the reflection of internal suffering of a nation at large. The film-makers submerge the nation’s pain in highly appealing story-telling, which interpreted the uprootment and loss in different ways and help people incoming terms with it. Hindu films act as the interface between the traditions of Indian society and of the disturbing Western intrusions. The function of Hindu film is to externalize an inner psychological conflict and handle the inner passion generated by social and political processes as problems created by events and persons.                 Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Media Studies Essay

Media Studies Essay To what extend have Hindu values and ideologies dominated the representational agenda of Indian cinema? ...

Cinematic Definitions of Masculinity in the West: the challenge of Jackie Chan’s Star Persona and his American Films

Cinematic Definitions of Masculinity in the West: the challenge of Jackie Chan’s Star Persona and his American Films     The film is a masterpiece tackling the most controversial beliefs regarding life and reality (or even abstract thoughts). Truly, this makes the film even more compelling. It presented claims and arguments that question the grounds of man’s existence as well as the possibilities of a multi-dimensional world. It wittingly disrupted the distinction between fact and fantasy as the movie transcended the audience to cross socially and culturally defined beliefs. The movie lures the viewers to think outside the confined notions of reality and existence by illustrating possible impossibilities. Even though film do not have an interactive audience in terms of acting as compared to theatre (Benedetti 2001, 10), it could be said that there are billions of people who watch films. They find their personalities in the portrayals of the characters and relate their life experiences to the plot of the particular movies. Also, they empathize and sympathize with the fate of the characters. Viewers delight when the character in which they can associate themselves with are in good condition after a series of hardships and troubles. They are distressed when the character they adore dies or loses the fight (David 1990, 2-3). These are among the several reasons on why viewers who see the influences behind and surrounding filmmakers can more clearly and fully understand why films are presented in such ways. According to Holmes, Zonn and Cravey (2004), masculinity is prominent in various cinematic genres, and notably so in the Western. After all, Westerns are not so much about the West as they are about the Westerner. He stands alone, heroic, powerful, and fighting to the end for justice and order. There is considerable diversity about what defines `masculinity’. For many writers, ‘masculine’ is simply what men `are’: it is what differentiates them from women (Bourke 1996). How men came to `be manly’ is more commonly assumed to be the product of socialization.    The Masculine Image during World War I This discussion of masculinity will chronologically start during the First World War, since that time period, provides potentially interesting settings to test assumptions about divergent masculinities, men’s bodies, and cultural change. In Britain, more than five million men were active participants in this war.  What is the impact of the Great War on masculinity and men’s bodies? Undeniably, many men regarded themselves as having been transformed by their encounter with warfare: many echoed the words of John M. Connor when he wrote in his diary for November 21st, 1914: seeing your pals blown into bits, it makes a new man fellow in spirit, moral & character … it will make many changed man tell you, better men in every respect this war will [all sic].   The war-maimed were the most visible image of men’s bodies during WW1.  What the soldiers experienced during this war irrevocably remoulded their experiences as they struggled to create new lives that challenged their status as physically disabled. Even men who were spared disfigurement found that military life enabled them to experiment with different masculine aesthetics. These were often linked to socio-economic class. For instance, in a diary entry in October 1918, Ralph Scott marveled over the way the war had altered the appearance of his hands: I looked at my great murderous maulers and wondered idly how they had evolved from the sensitive manicured fingers that used to pen theses on `Colloidal Fuel’ and The Theory of Heat Distribution in Cylinder Walls’. And I found the comparison good. sufficient.   According to many writers, male sexuality during this time, showed a relationship between war and homoeroticism. This is illustrated by the fact that soldiers spoke without hesitation of their love for their comrades. This language was a legacy of a host of factors like public schools and pre-war traditions such as pub culture, sporting clubs and the scouts. Despite this language, wartime experiences proved too traumatic to develop new forms of male intimacy. So-called male bonding was limited and contingent on a huge range of factors, fracturing along lines of personality, age, ethnicity, class and military unit. Fast forward to the 1990’s and masculinity assumes a slightly different depiction.  Wetzstein (1996) said that masculinity is in disrepute.  In a sidelong and subliminal way, men have become the Evil Empire. . . . The `manly’ virtues (bravery, strength, discipline and, egad, machismo itself) remain admirable only by being quietly reassigned to women – to Janet Reno and Hillary Clinton, say.”   In the pervasive media overexposed generation of the 1990’s, men’s cultural image remains mired in the barnyard.  Their image, especially in advertising – especially radio ads – has degenerated.  Before the 1990’s, men were portrayed as “know-it-alls,” but today “men are the buffoons and are portrayed as doltish.  It is worst in radio shopping ads where the message being sent is that men “can’t be trusted” to go to the store. An interesting change of image of masculinity happens in the new millennium as an advertising label – that of a metrosexual, puts another spin on the definition of masculinity.  Metrosexuals are defined as muscular but suave, confident yet image-conscious, assertive yet clearly in touch with their feminine sides.  For metrosexuals, substance is nothing without style. They are expected to always know how to dress for the occasion and may spend a long time standing in front of the mirror, but they never shop alone (Khanna, 2004).   Gender Roles: The Functionalist Argument The functionalist argument in gender roles is assumed to ‘fit’ the needs of individuals, the family and the social system.  These roles are influenced by biology, are learned through socialisation and emphasise that the woman’s primary responsibility is the home.  Critics of this argument see such approaches as avoiding a proper consideration of inequalities in the distribution of labour and power, with the consequent exploitation of women in work and at home. Functionalist sociologists argue that the universality of gender roles is explained in terms of their usefulness, rather than biology.  The sexual division of labour is seen as functional for both individuals and society.  It emphasises the importance of motherhood and claims that the mother role and the family are universal. Moreover, it emphasises the importance of the functions of the family, particularly as regards the stabilisation of the adult personality and socialisation of children.  The expressive female role is compared with the instrumental male role, and they are seen as complementary. The view that gender is largely socially defined is supported by evidence of cultural and historical variation.  Comparative and historical studies are important. Therefore, social scientists were able to identify considerable variation in sex and gender roles in simple societies, including the reversal of traditional roles and the virtual absence of role differentiation. Traditionally, prevalent societal attitudes may exert powerful influences on filmmakers (Phillips 1999, 375). The audiences are drawn to the plot and establish empathy with the characters with whom they are able to identify. Empathy is among the primary mechanisms that results to responses of viewers to frightful stimuli (Bryant & Thompson 2002, 221). People watch films or even shows in the television to liberate themselves from various conditions such as boredom, personal problems, or even for the sake of curiosity, entertainment, and mere appreciation of the film as a form of art. In every given country, it constitutes a significant proportion of the worldwide population of film lovers and viewers. As Bryant and Thompson (2002, 352) affirmed, the entertainment brought about by film (and other forms of communication medium) is an effective and acceptable way to relieve one’s discontentment and stressing situations of everyday life. Primarily, the entertainment that films offer to everyone who sees it serves as an activity that delights and enlightens people’s viewing experiences even just for a temporary span of time. Today, films are no longer limited for the purposes of art and entertainment but serve as a potent avenue for learning and instruction. However, the presence of many films that vary from genre, languages, and even area of origin plus the factors affecting the growth, commercialization, globalization, and modernization of the worldwide cinema business, needs to qualify the standards of a good and worthy film. The question of what makes a good film is the real challenge to face. The quest for the best film among other films in the commercial market is one of the serious endeavours of every film aficionado. Thus, there is the presence of different worldwide evaluation and classification groups, institutions, and organizations directed to film analyses, reviews and criticisms. The theme of racism and racial discrimination is relatively presented through spoken dialogues. There are no significant differences in the American films of Chan, aside from the technical considerations on the given medium. In terms of presentation, cinema has been using up-to-date technologies that alter the traditional viewing experience. This also affects the absorption of the audience of the play’s message. In general, the film and the play do not differ significantly except on the technical aspect. The similarities are deliberate enough to be comprehensible and no longer needs critical explanations. It is further believed that the audiences who saw both can clearly decipher the whole message or theme in an effortless and interesting manner. Generally, film is a medium of a “broader global patterns and frameworks, especially the communication industry as an integrated interacting whole” (Mowlana 1997, 97). It provides a giant mirror that serves as a reflection of the values, the half-truths, and the ideals of the society and its people (Whetmore 1997, 201). Universal emotions such as fear, love, disappointment, etc. have been experienced by people. It could be a total ruin, complete love, paralyzing fear, or savage violence. Through film, it blows up these emotions until they become “larger than life” (Whetmore 1997, 201). Because of film’s popularity and universality, many people use films as an agent of communication, education, learning, and entertainment. The feeling of audience and resemblance of existence is the basic element of cinema without which there is no art of filmmaking. The complex, artistic whole and elements are facilitated by a number of linkages with the artistic cultural experiences of the society (Hart 1991, 1). Film is an externalization of what is real in life. As stated, people relate and learn from it. It is a medium of entertainment, communication, and instruction. Viewers resort to movies as means of diversion and amusement. Meanwhile, film analysis and criticism plays one principal purpose – to evaluate the overall quality of a particular film. In today’s contemporary standards, it could be theorised that the presence of award-giving institutions are helpful to viewers and film related people especially in determining the aspects that needs further development and the parts that need to be maintained. Award-giving bodies qualify or can also intensify the views of more legitimate and credible film critics. Like all mass media, film has two component parts that serve as basis in film analysis – the form and the content (Whetmore 1997, 207). These alone may determine what is a ‘smart’ or ‘dumb’ film. All in all, the concept of film and its audience is very essential to every individual that consider film as a portrayal of reality. However, today’s film industry is facing several great challenges that are headed for radical transformation (David 1998, 119). Like the film itself, the industry and its people will undergo further dimensions in terms of technological approaches and developments. The importance of cultural intertexts has served the purpose of addressing why these stars came to embody specific masculine types, how these modes of masculinity were formulated in social discourse, and why these stars exercised a certain hold over the collective imagination. The necessity of the fullest possible examination of the cultural framework is seen in analyzing how stardom comes to represent anything especially in terms of gender. The various guises of masculinity revealed in these stars may indicate just how reactive notions of masculine identity were to perceived social upheaval, especially to that associated with women. In keeping with the era’s dominant discoveries on masculine development, they all appear to reveal the underlying assumption that men were made, not born, from their most normative to their most transgressive embodiments of transformative masculinity.     References   Adler, L (1993) International Handbook on Gender Roles, Greenwood Press Greenwood, CT   Bourke, J (1996) History Today, 46, February issue     Benedetti, R (2001) Action! Acting for Film and TV, Allyn and Bacon, New York   Bryant, J and Thompson, S (2002) Fundamentals of Media Effects, McGraw Hill, Boston   David, J (1998) Wages of Cinema: Film in Philippines Perspective, University of the Philippines Press, Manila, Philippines   David, N (1990) the National Pastime: Contemporary Philippine Cinema, Advil, Manila, PH   Hart, A (1991) Understanding Media: a Practical Guide, Routledge, London   Holmes, G, Zonn, L and Cravey, AJ (2004) “Placing man in the New West: Masculinities of The Last Picture Show”, GeoJournal, 59: 277–288   Khanna, P (2004) “The Metrosexual Superpower: The Stylish European Union Struts Past the Bumbling United States on the Catwalk of Global Diplomacy”, Foreign Policy, 143, July-August issue   Mowlana, H (1997) Global Information and World Communication, 2nd edition, Sage, London   Phillips, W (1999) Film: an Introduction, Bedford/St. Martin, Boston, MA   Wetzstein, C (1996) “It’s Been 2 Years, and Men’s Image Is Still Suffering: Much Ado Followed Time”, The Washington Times, December 4 issue   Whetmore, EJ (1997) Mediamerica: Form, Content, and Consequence of Mass Communication, Wadsworth, New York   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Cinematic Definitions of Masculinity in the West: the challenge of Jackie Chan’s Star Persona and his American Films

Cinematic Definitions of Masculinity in the West: the challenge of Jackie Chan’s Star Persona and his American Films The film is a...

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