THE UNIVERSITY
Business School
A GUIDE TO REPORT AND ESSAY WRITING:
Layout and proofreading the final copy
Introduction
The purpose of this guide is to provide you with information on how to present coursework assignments at the Business School.
The guide focuses on the expected physical appearance of your work, and the importance of proof-reading an assignment to check for spelling and grammatical errors.
It is recommended that you refer to this guide every time you begin work on a new coursework assignment. In assessing your work, tutors will expect you to have applied the guidance in these notes, and your grade may be reduced if you fail to do so.
Presentation of your coursework
Before you begin to type your coursework, remember that the presentation of your work is important, not only in helping to create a good impression, but also in helping the lecturer who has to grade your coursework to read it easily. Remember that they have many other students’ assignments to read, not just yours!
For all your Business School coursework, you should set your word-processing system to use the Arial or Verdana typeface, font size 12, and select 1.5 or double line spacing.
Do not write your coursework in capital letters only.
Keep text left justified with a ragged right edge to lines. This helps the reader keep their place on the page.
You should also leave a space between each paragraph, and a double space before and after each main section heading.
The work must be fully paginated with page numbers beginning on the introductory page and running consecutively through the text.
People process information in different ways and it is important to consider your target audience when presenting ideas and concepts. Some people might find it easier to follow a long and wordy explanation, whilst others may prefer information presented in a different way. For example:
A GUIDE TO REPORT AND ESSAY WRITING:
Interpreting assignment instructions and structuring your work
The purpose of this guide is to provide you with information on how to structure a report or an essay. It is important to emphasise, for coursework purposes, that lecturers may place special emphasis on certain elements of the report or essay content. Please therefore take particular note of any specific instructions that you are given by a lecturer.
It is recommended that you refer to this guide each time before you begin work on a new coursework assignment.
Separate guidance will be provided on the more detailed requirements for writing a dissertation.
Planning your work
As stated by (1997), there are a number of activities within this initial stage.
Clarifying requirements
The first planning activity is to ensure that you have clearly understood the requirements of the coursework assignment, the concepts and resources that you are supposed to draw on in your work, how it is intended that the work be presented and the submission date.
The following table summarises the interpretation of typical instructions issued for assignments.
Typical instructions for an assignment
Analyse
Break a question or issue into its component parts and explain how they relate to one another.
Assess
Estimate the importance or value of something.
Compare
Examine similarities and differences.
Contrast
Concentrate on differences.
Criticise
Point out the faults, limitations and usefulness of the subject in question.
Define
Explain the precise meaning of something
Describe
Give a detailed account of a topic.
Discuss
Explain the meaning of something and present a logical argument exploring it.
Evaluate
Weigh up the importance, success or value of something, using evidence to support your view.
Examine
Give a detailed account of something, questioning and exploring relevant issues.
Explain
Give a precise account of something, with reasons for why or how it is as it is.
Illustrate
Use examples from a range of sources to demonstrate the subject of the assignment.
Justify or prove
Make a case for a particular perspective. Establish the truth of something through supporting evidence or logical reasoning.
Review
Examine how a topic has been studied and comment on the value and limitations of its treatment.
Review literature
Survey the literature written on a subject, outlining key themes, points of discussion and gaps.
State
Write the main points relating to the subject.
Summarise
Give the main points of something.
To what extent?
Similar to evaluate: explore and test the case for and against a claim.
(Adapted from and 1997 )
If you are at all unclear regarding the instructions issued to you, please do not hesitate to contact the member of staff who set the assignment for further information.
Noting relevant themes
Having clarified the objectives of your assignment, you should then write down all the factors you can think of that might be relevant. A useful technique is to construct a mind map ( 1989). Start in the centre of the page with a word or phrase indicating your main idea or central theme and then branch out with each sub-theme taking a separate branch. These branches divide further into sub-themes. See Appendix A for an example of an assignment mind map.
Defining an outline structure
Once you have completed your brainstorming, you need to start looking for groupings within these factors. This may be according to problem areas, by chronology, according to factors such as geography or department involved, or organisational level. Your structure could also relate to the explicitly stated parts of your assignment or to conceptual frameworks covered within your module.
(1997 ) also suggests another framework for defining your report structure known as the ‘Universal Management Paradigm’ :
· describe the situation, including relevant elements of context and why it presents problems;
· analyse the problem using module concepts;
· decide on measures of effectiveness: includes criteria for an effective solution and any constraints;
· describe the range of possible solutions;
· analyse the costs and benefits in terms of the measures of effectiveness;
· recommend, with arguments to support your recommendations, your preferred solutions.
At the planning stage, you will not have gathered the evidence to support your relevant themes. However, having an outline structure can help you be more selective at the information-gathering stage. This outline structure should be regarded as a working tool that may have to be amended in light of the evidence you collect.
3.0 Structure of the Coursework
Although different organisations may have their own house style, the basic structure is always broadly similar. The use of a standard and logical structure will help the reader find their way around your work. For a management report, this normally includes a title page, an executive summary, a table of contents, a list of tables and figures, an introduction, the main body, conclusions, recommendations, a list of references, bibliography (where applicable) and appendices. Each of these areas will be discussed in turn.
An essay will follow a similar format, but without the executive summary, table of contents and list of tables and figures. Sections within an essay are not normally numbered and sub-headings are not usually required, although the latter may be beneficial in a longer essay ( 2005). If in doubt, please consult the person who set the assignment.
The following sections provide an overview of what is required for each part of your report or essay.
Title page
As this heading implies, you must specify a title for your report or essay, which should be as descriptive as possible. On the title page you should also indicate who has written the work (or provide your student ID number if the work is to be submitted anonymously) and to whom it is addressed. In certain circumstances, you may also be required to state why it has been prepared.
Executive summary (reports only)
This can only be produced after the report has been completed. The executive summary is an abbreviated version of your report. It should be no more than one side of A4 and briefly cover the purpose of your report, why it was done, what was done, how it was done, and key findings. The emphasis of the executive summary should be on the key findings of your report and as such it should be able to ‘stand alone’ as a document. Avoid including information that is not mentioned in the report itself. Insert an executive summary at the front of your report, before the table of contents. The function of an executive summary is to orientate the reader as to the main arguments or evidence that have led to your conclusions ( 1997). Once you have written your executive summary it is useful to reflect on whether a) it does clearly and succinctly identify the key findings of the report and b) whether these key issues are suitably detailed in the body of your report.
Table of contents (reports only)
This should show the page numbers of the main headings and subheadings used in the report. It is also essential to number the headings and subheadings (see body of report below). If your report includes appendices, their titles should be listed but no page numbers given. The contents page should not include any reference to the title page or the executive summary, since these precede the contents page.
List of tables and figures (reports only)
Use a separate page to list the titles of any tables/figures used and their page numbers.
Introduction
Your first paragraph should always be the introduction (numbered “1.0 Introduction”, in a report). This section introduces your work by telling the reader why it was required, what you set out to do (includes aim and objectives) and how the findings have been achieved.
You can choose to follow the format suggested by and (1994 ) and divide your introduction into three subsections: background, objectives and methods.
Background
This part of the introduction is simply a summary of your interpretation of the assignment brief and is commonly referred to as ‘explaining the terms of reference’. Also define any terms that may be new to the reader.
Aims and objectives
This section provides information on the overall purpose (aim) of your work and the areas to be covered (objectives) within it. For the latter you could use the following: “This report comprises five main parts. It will begin with…. and then……… Next it will…….Conclusions will then be drawn and six recommendations offered” ( 1997 ).
Methods (reports only)
This part describes the methods by which the information was obtained. You should highlight briefly the range of information used from the available literature (secondary research). You may also be asked to undertake field work as part of your coursework assignment (primary research). Here it would be appropriate to summarise briefly the research methods used, such as face-to-face interviews, self-completion questionnaires, and give details of the size of your research sample.
Body of report or essay
A report should be clearly sectionalised, with the use of appropriate headings and subheadings. An essay should also follow a logical sequence, but usually without headings and subheadings.
As mentioned by (1997), in a report, you should number the headings and subheadings with decimal numerical form. For example, if your main theme is 3.0, and there are four main sub-themes, these would be numbered 3.1, 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4. If there were two themes for 3.2, these would be numbered 3.2.1 and 3.2.2. Try to limit decimal places to four because beyond this it can get too complicated for the reader to follow. If you have a list of five reasons for the point 3.2.2. these can be indicated as i) ii) iii) iv) v) or you can use bullet points but if the text is more than just a list it is preferable to use the decimal numbering to another level.
Throughout the main body of your work you should be aiming to develop arguments based on evidence which build up to your conclusions ( 1997). One way to check this is to see if you can summarise each section in these terms. If you are not able to do so, it may be that you have included evidence that does not contribute to your argument or it may be that part of your argument is not substantiated by the evidence.
Conclusions
The conclusions should draw together the arguments developed in the main body of the work so that the implications can be spelled out ( 1997). Remember to restate your aim at the start of your conclusions. The conclusions should not incorporate any new material but should summarise the key arguments discussed in the main body. If you find it difficult to distinguish between conclusions and recommendations, it may be helpful to think of conclusions as being more to do with logic while the recommendations deal with the implementation of these conclusions ( 1997).
Recommendations
If your assignment asks for recommendations, use a separate paragraph for each recommendation. Try to avoid weak suggestions such as “line managers should communicate more….”. Keep your recommendations specific and practical to implement. Your recommendations should be clearly prioritised and the priorities justified. For example, the recommendations may be presented under headings of ‘immediate’ or ‘long term’, ‘strategic’ or ‘operational’. Ensure that all recommendations are included here, even if you have referred to them earlier in the body of the work. Also, no recommendation may be made that has not already been fully substantiated in the main body. Again no new ideas or material should appear at this point.
References and bibliography
Include a list of references (sources which are actually cited in the report or essay itself) and a bibliography (sources which you consulted but which are not mentioned in the report or essay itself) ( 1996). Detailed guidance is provided in another of the guides in this series.
Appendices (reports only)
Appendices are used to include supporting evidence for those who may wish more detail, such as a copy of a questionnaire, an interview schedule, detailed statistical tabulations, etc. Appendices can also be very effective if they present published data, such as a table from a case study, in a new light, or generate new data based on published information. It is also good practice to offer an interpretation of data provided in the appendices rather than leaving the reader to reach their own conclusions. Always refer to material in your appendices at an appropriate point in the main body of your report. Do not include material as an appendix if it has not been mentioned in the main body of the report and avoid using appendices as a way of getting around the word limit. If the material is essential to your argument it should be included in the main body of your report. Appendices should be used for tactical reasons not as ‘bins’ for material that looks good but is largely irrelevant.
Conclusion
The aim of this guide was to provide you with essential information to help you to write an effective report or essay. To help you get started on your coursework assignment you need to spend time clarifying the requirements, noting the relevant themes, and drafting an outline structure. The layout of your report should follow an accepted, professional standard, which will enable you to present your findings in the best possible way and help the reader find their way around the report. In a report, this includes a title page, an executive summary, a table of contents, a list of tables and figures, a clear introduction, a main body with the use of appropriate headings and subheadings, conclusions, recommendations, a list of references and appendices, where appropriate.
Reflect carefully on all the above points and your work should impress your lecturers and attract a good grade.
· Flow charts are ideal for explaining procedures.
· Pictograms and graphics help to locate information.
· Lists of “do’s” and “don’ts” may be more useful than continuous text to highlight aspects of good practice.
· It may be necessary to provide a list of abbreviations and jargon if necessary.
Avoid the use of computer-generated pictures because these may not always print properly.
The completed coursework must be word-processed on A4 paper, with text on one side of each sheet. Use wide margins (3.5 cm or 1.5 in) to allow ample space for the lecturer grading your work to write any comments.
Length of your coursework
The required length of a piece of coursework varies from module to module. The length required may indicate the range and depth of study that is required, and may also test whether you can express your ideas clearly and concisely.
The required length of a piece of coursework will be included in the guidelines for each assignment. You will be expected to use the ‘Word Count’ facility in your word-processing software, and to report the length of your report or essay. You will be penalised for both excessive wordage and inadequate wordage.
Proof-reading your coursework
When your coursework is nearing completion, there are one or two last steps that should be taken. Always read over and critically examine your report before you hand it in. Many pieces of coursework fail to do full justice to the efforts made.
When reviewing your report, ask yourself ‘does this make sense?’ Here are a number of suggestions to help ensure that your report is easy to read:
· Try to have only one idea or topic per paragraph. You will lose the reader if you try to cram too many ideas into one paragraph;
· keep paragraphs to less than 20 lines of text. However, if your paragraphs are too short it can make your writing appear disjointed and perhaps indicate that you have not sufficiently developed your ideas;
· try to keep sentences to not more than two lines of text. The more ‘ands’, and ‘buts’ and ‘howevers’ you have, the more difficult it is for the reader to understand;
· leave a line space between paragraphs. This allows the reader to pause to understand one point before moving on to the next;
· use sub-headings to indicate new ideas.
It is also recommended that you have a linking sentence or two at the end of each section and a short introduction to each main section to lead the reader through the assignment in a logical way.
Little excuse exists for a failure to proofread the final copy. Poor grammar and spelling (especially key authors’ names) can make your meaning unclear and your reports difficult and annoying to read. In business, reports full of these types of errors have no credibility and are unlikely to be effective. The action that they recommend may not be taken. Grammatical and spelling errors, or using punctuation in the wrong way, may create doubt as to the clarity of your thoughts ( 1997). Neither will enhance your career prospects or the grade for your coursework.
You should make a point of always using the ‘spell check’ and ‘grammar check’ on the tool bar in whichever word-processing package you are using. You should note that many software packages are set with American spell checks, therefore these will be of little help with such words as ‘labor/labour’ and ‘organization/organisation’. Make sure that, if it is possible, the spell check in your word processing package is set to ‘English (UK)’ and not ‘English (USA).’
Even the most erudite of us can slip up at times by muddling words such as ‘advice’ and ‘advise’. Remember that you will also have to read through your report very carefully for words that are correctly spelt but may be incorrect such as ‘form’ instead of ‘from’, or words that are used in the wrong context such as ‘their’ instead of ‘there’. If in doubt, get someone else to proofread your coursework for typing errors and bad grammar.
You should check that all references included in the text are listed and that all the references in your list have been used.
Finally, it is recommended that you remove any references to the first person (e.g. the use of ‘I’ or ‘We’), which is generally not acceptable in academic writing, and often not acceptable in management reports.
References
Further reading
Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com
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