Research Articles Base: Sports Physiology

SPORTS PHYSIOLOGY

The same metabolic systems are present in muscle as in all other parts of the body. However, special quantitative measures of the activities of three metabolic systems are exceedingly important in understanding the limits of physical activities like sports. These systems are (1) the phosphocreatinine-creatinine (phosphagen) system, (2) the glycogen-lactic acid (anaerobic) system, and (3) the aerobic system (Guyton & Hall, 2000).             The source of energy used to cause muscle contraction is adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which has the following basic formula:                         Adenosine-PO3 ~ PO3 ~ PO3 ~             The bonds attaching the last two phosphate radicals to the molecule, designated by the symbol ~, are high energy phosphate bonds. Each of these bonds store 7300 calories of energy per mole of ATP under standard conditions and even slightly more than this under the physical conditions in the body (Ganong, 2001).             The amount of ATP present in the muscles, even in a well-trained athlete, is sufficient to sustain maximal muscle power for only about 3 seconds, maybe enough for one half of a 50-meter dash. Therefore, except for a few seconds at a time, it is essential that new ATP be formed continuously, even during the performance of short athletic events (Guyton & Hall, 2000).             The figure below shows the overall metabolic system, demonstrating the breakdown or splitting of ATP first to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and then to adenosine monophosphate (AMP), with the release of energy to the muscles for contraction.   i. Phosphocreatinine è Creatinine + PO3      è                                                                                                 ATP ii. Glycogen                 è Lactic Acid             è        ì         éê      î                                                                                                 ADP         Energy for muscle iii. Glucose                  î                                             î         éê      ì         contraction      Fatty Acids             è + O2 à CO2 + H2O           è                    AMP      Amino Acids           ì                     +                                                         Urea Source: Guyton & Hall, 2000             The aerobic system is the oxidation of foodstuffs in the mitochondria to provide energy (Ganong, 2001). As shown in the table, glucose, fatty acids/fats, and amino acids from the foodstuffs – after some immediate processing – combine with oxygen to release tremendous amounts of energy that are used to convert AMP to ADP into ATP.             The phosphagen system is the one used by the muscle for power surges of a few seconds, and the aerobic system is required for prolonged athletic activity. In between is the glycogen-lactic acid system, which is especially important for giving extra power during intermediate races as the 200- to 800-meter runs (Guyton & Hall, 2000).             In anaerobic glycolysis, the process converts glycogen or glucose to lactic acid and regenerate energy stores of ATP. However, if lactic acid is allowed to build up, muscle contraction is compromised. This buildup of lactic acid is thought to be a component of muscle fatigue (Massimino & Sallis, 1997).             The fuels or substrates used during exercise are primarily carbohydrates and fats (Massimino & Sallis, 1997). Carbohydrates (CHO) are largely used by muscles during exercise and other sports activities. In addition to the large usage of CHO by the muscles, large amounts of fat in the form of fatty acids and acetoacetic acid are also used. To a much less extent proteins in the form of amino acids are also used. In fact, even under the best conditions, in those sports events that last longer than 4 to 5 hours, the glycogen stores of the muscle become almost totally depleted and are of little further use for energizing muscle contraction. Instead, the muscle now depends on energy from other sources, mainly from fats (Guyton & Hall, 2000).             The table below shows the energy systems used in various sports: System Sports Phosphagen System 100-meter dash, jumping, weight lifting, diving, football dashes Phosphagen & Glycogen-lactic acid systems 200-meter dash, basketball, baseball home run, ice hockey dashes Glycogen-lactic acid system mainly (Anaerobic) 400-meter dash, 100-meter swim, tennis, soccer Glycogen-lactic acid and aerobic systems 800-meter dash, 200-meter swim, 1500-meter skating, boxing, 2000-meter rowing, 1500-meter run, 1-mile run, 400-meter swim Aerobic system 10000-meter skating, cross-country skiing, marathon run (26.2 miles, 42.2 km), jogging Source: Guyton & Hall, 2000   REFERENCES Ganong, W. (2001). Review of Medical Physiology 20th Edition. McGraw-Hill. Guyton, A. and Hall, J. (2000). Textbook of Medical Physiology 10th Edition. Harcourt Asia Pte Ltd. Massimino, F. & Sallis, R.E. (1997). Essentials of Sports Medicine. Mosby. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

SPORTS PHYSIOLOGY

The same metabolic systems are present in muscle as in all other parts of the body. However, special quantitative measures...

An Essay on Anti-Inflammatory Drugs in Sports

Introduction             It can be said that all athletes (sportsmen and women) are prone to injury.  Sports haven been developed from the natural capabilities of the human mind and body and so, when partaken at modest level, few sports involve great risk of physical injuries.  This situation changes drastically when sporting pursuits are undertaken at higher levels of competition. Herein, if an athlete would want achieve his/her goal of winning, the pressure is put in the structural framework of the body which sometimes result to injuries. Many of the sports carry their own peculiar additional risks of injury to the body.  For example, the boxer may suffer repeated blows to the face causing extensive bruising and laceration and football player may receive kicks to the legs resulting in bruising or even bone fracture.  Whatever the cause or nature of the injury, one of its inevitable features will be the occurrence of an inflammatory reaction at the damaged area.              In order to alleviate the suffering of these athletes, there are different kinds of drugs that can be used for such injuries or pain.  One of which is the use of anti-inflammatory drugs. Because of the issue of performance enhancing drugs used by many athletes, the term Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) is being used.   Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug is capable of reducing or eliminating pain.  Its anti-inflammatory actions are used to lessen problems link with swelling of injuries and pain.  Anti-inflammatory drugs are the approved types of drugs that can be used in sports (Rahusen, Weinhold & Almekinders, 2004) for muscle injuries and other pains cause by sports activities. .  NSAIDS that are more commonly used as treatment of injuries and pains caused in athletes include ibuprofen, diclofenac, naproxen, ketoprofen, and compounds like indomethacin and vioxyl.   Use of NSAID in Sports             As mentioned there are different kinds of NSAID that can be used by athletes. Hence, the following will discuss the use of each type of NSAID and the adverse effect of each drug for sportsmen and women.   Aspirin or Indomethacin One of the kinds of NSAID is aspirin or indomethacin, these anti-inflammatory drugs is used as analgesics and recommended fro treatment of sports injuries.    Pharmacological action The analgesics’ anti-inflammatory and antipyretic activity of NSAID is based on their ability to inhibit prostaglandin synthesis.   Adverse effects The most common adverse effects associated with NSAIDs are gastro-intestinal, including nausea, dyspepsia and ulcers. Topical administration of NSAIDs may offer an effective and possibly safer alternative route of administration.   Muscle relaxants Use in sport There are a number of drugs, such as benzodiazepines and dantrolene sodium, which have muscle relaxant effects. They are not generally recommended for the treatment of athletic injury.   Benzodiazepines and other anxiolytics Use in sport A number of classes of drugs have been used as anxiolytics, including alcohol, beta blockers and benzodiazepines. The first two classes have been described above, as they are restricted in certain sports.   Pharmacological action Benzodiazepines variously reduce the activity of a number of central neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine, serotonin and noradrenaline. The anti-anxiety effect is primarily through release of gamma-aminobutyric acid, which inhibits the release of serotonin.   Adverse effects Benzodiazepines are relatively free of adverse effects. However, they are liable to produce dependency if used for extended periods. Benzodiazepines may also be used by athletes for insomnia. Under these circumstances, athletes need to be aware of the ‘hangover’ effect of these drugs.   Cough and cold preparations Use in sport The use of medication for these self-limiting conditions is questionable. The only potential use for drugs is for the control of symptoms such as headache, fever, runny nose and cough. However, many of the drugs found in OTC cough and cold remedies, particularly the alpha-1-sympathomimetic decongestants, are banned by the IOC, although there are cut-off concentrations in the urine for these drugs.   Pharmacological action Apart from the sympathomimetic decongestants discussed previously, cough and cold medicines may contain analgesics (paracetamol, codeine), antihistamines (e.g. triprolidine, astemizole), imidazole decongestants (e.g. xylometazoline) cough suppressants (e.g. pholcodine) and expectorants (e.g. ipecacuanha), all of which are permitted by the IOC.   Adverse effects In general, cough and cold preparations are taken for short periods of time and therefore side-effects are limited. However, nasal decongestants are liable to produce rebound congestion if used for more than 1 week. Sedating antihistamines may have adverse effects on performance in most sports.   Antidiarrhoeals Use in sport First-line treatment for diarrhoea is oral rehydration therapy (ORT). Antimotility drugs may be used for short-term symptomatic relief of acute diarrhoea if it is likely to affect performance.   Pharmacological action ORT enhances the absorption of water and replaces electrolytes. Antimotility drugs (codeine, diphenoxylate, loperamide) are opioids with a direct relaxant effect on the smooth muscle of the gastrointestinal tract.   Adverse effects Tolerance and dependence may develop with prolonged use of antimotility drugs. Loperamide may produce abdominal cramps, drowsiness and skin reactions.   Nutritional supplements Use in sport In an attempt to enhance performance through ergogenic aids, without con-travening IOC regulations, many athletes have used nutritional supplements. The manufacture and sale of nutritional supplements is not as closely regulated as that for drugs. Nutritional supplements may therefore contain banned substances or their precursors, which produce the same metabolites as banned substances in the urine. The use of nutritional supplements may therefore lead to a positive dope test result.   Pharmacological action Manufacturers may make exaggerated claims regarding the ergogenic properties of their products. There is little, if any, evidence that nutritional supplements possess ergogenic properties in athletes consuming a balanced diet.   Adverse effects Some nutritional supplements have the potential for harm. Creatine has been the subject of many studies, but results are equivocal as to whether it produces ergogenic effects. There are few reliable scientific data on possible adverse effects of creatine, but its potential effect on renal dysfunction and electrolyte imbalance, leading to a predisposition to dehydration and heat-related illness, suggests caution in its use   Conclusion             The use of anti-inflammatory drug, specifically NSAID has been recommended to help Although NSAID are useful for athletes who is suffering from pain or injuries, sportsmen and women should be aware that using NSAID as treatment might effectively reduce swelling, pain and inflammation. But, the athlete must also think that these drugs have adverse effects and the more they are overusing it the more it will affect their body.     Reference Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug (2006).  Available at [www.wikipedia.org]. Accessed on [27/04/06].   Rahusen, F.T, Weinhold, P.S. and Almekinders, L.C. (2004).  Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs and Acetiminophen in the treatment of an acute muscle injury. Am J Sports Med.  2004; 32(8):1856-9.  Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

An Essay on Anti-Inflammatory Drugs in Sports

Introduction It can be said that all athletes (sportsmen and women) are prone to injury. Sports haven been developed from t...

OBSERVATION OF THE PHOENIX SUNS PRACTICE SESSION

OBSERVATION OF THE PHOENIX SUNS PRACTICE SESSION   Date: October 12, 2006   Time: 2:00 pm to 6:00 pm   A. Physical Setting               The venue of the author’s observation was at the US Airways Center, the home court of the Phoenix Suns in Phoenix, Arizona. B. Nature of the Group             The Phoenix Suns is a professional basketball team that plays in the National Basketball Association. Established in 1968, the team has recently become one of the elite teams in the NBA because of its impressive performances, such as back to back trips to the Western Conference Finals in 2005 and 2006. Led by two-time and reigning NBA Most Valuable Player Steve Nash and 2005 NBA Coach of the Year Mike D’Antoni, the team went from being a loser to an instant championship contender. This coming new NBA season, expectations are again as high as the skies as the team is expected to make it all the way to the NBA Finals. The supporting casts can’t really be described as pushovers. Returning this season will be the ever hardworking Shawn “The Matrix” Marion, defensive specialist Raja Bell, Boris “3D” Diaw, Leandro “The Brazilian Blur” Barbosa and Kurt Thomas. But the eyes of many Phoenix Suns fans as well as NBA experts and fanatics will surely be on Amare “STAT” Stoudamire, the superstar forward who unfortunately had a micro-fracture surgery on his knee last season, forcing to miss most of the games for rehabilitation procedures. This year, however, STAT has expressed optimism that he is close to coming back to 100% come the opening tip-off of the new NBA season. This is definitely not good news as far as Phoenix’s Western Conference opponents are concerned, and obviously a source of thrill and optimism for Phoenix Suns fans who have yet to experience another trip to the NBA Finals since the Charles Barkley-led team that made in 1993 but eventually lost to Michael Jordan-led Chicago Bulls. C. Forms of Interaction             During the practice session of the Phoenix Suns which I attended and watched, I observed that it was Coach Mike D’ Antoni that typically had most of the control. He would always discuss and remind his players regarding the new goals and objectives of the team this new NBA season. He would then assign every player significant roles within the team for the purposes of achieving bonding and cohesiveness. Coach Mike then proceeded in discussing both the offensive and defensive strategies that the team will employ for the season with assistance from a video tape player.             After the session with Coach Mike, it was the turn of the team captains Steve Nash and Shawn Marion to take over. Both of them reminded their teammates to always strive hard and always play like it would be their last game.             The scrimmage over the court was also full of verbal and non-verbal interaction. Players would often scream the names of plays and expressions of disgust or frustration over a botched play. Hand signals and pump-fisting motions could also be seen among scoring players.   D. Norms of Interaction             During the practice session, there were indeed several new players who failed to easily adapt to the run and gun system of Coach Mike D’Antoni. After a series of back and forth running, these players were visibly tired and gasping for breath. Coach Mike surely was disappointed with the deviant behaviors he saw from his new players, and this prompted him to stop the practice session momentarily to replace those tired players. E. Group Leadership Aside from Coach Mike D’Antoni, the team captains Steve Nash and Shawn Marion were considered as team leaders of the Phoenix Suns, where a relational type of leadership was being implemented. In this model, planning was a necessary function within the Phoenix Suns organization. In most organizations this process is often very difficult because of the fast rate of change and the occurrences of unplanned events. But a relational model of leadership uses several methodologies depending on what the situation demands. Nevertheless, the objectives of this type of leadership for do not change: efficiency and effectiveness. Planning was being implemented by the Phoenix Suns organization in order for its activities and resources to be coordinated over time. This enabled the organization to achieve its goals with minimal resource utilization, plus the opinions and suggestions of the members were also taken into consideration. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

OBSERVATION OF THE PHOENIX SUNS PRACTICE SESSION

OBSERVATION OF THE PHOENIX SUNS PRACTICE SESSION Date: October 12, 2006 Time: 2:00 pm to 6:00 pm A. Physical Setting ...

Sample Research Proposal Promotion of Competitive Sports in the Elementary School Curriculums

Situation Analysis               According to some studies, there are 80% of students that engage in Physical education and school sport  for the minimum of 2 hours per week. This means that 75% of 5-16 year olds students are participating at least a couple of hours per week on sports (Boston College, 2003). The target of the Department of Culture and Media Sports for the year 2006 is at least 82% in the elementary level.             The most popular competitive sports is football and athletics, there are 98% of schools that offer football and 92% offers athletics to their students (Boston College, 2003). Other schools also offer cricket, netball, hockey, rugby and tennis. But these sports are just part of their extra curricular activities and being offered during breaks and summer.   Scope of Assignment The objectives of this proposal are to bring consciousness to Elementary school that they need to have competitive sports in school (New England Interactive, 1989). Because it is important that the young students to engage in sports at an early age. At the same time, schools have to include this in their curriculum so that the parents would not have to ay additional fee for competitive sports. Target Audience               In this study, there are four target groups that will be used. The first group is the school administration, the administration plays and important role in the promotion of competitive sports in the Elementary School curriculums. It is their responsibility to develop a comprehensive curriculum that will include competitive sports in the everyday lessons of their students.               The second group is the teachers, this group can help the students and the parents to realize how important competitive sports to the lives and education of their students. The teachers are also responsible in promoting awareness about competitive sports, how this is different from their regular physical education and what benefits the students can gain from this. The teachers can also be a medium to encourage their students to engage in competitive sports in school.               The third group is the parents, the parents need to realize that their children will positively benefit in engaging in competitive sports. They should realize the advantages that competitive sports can do to the physical, emotional, mental and social development of their children. It will be their responsibility to support their children while participating in this endeavor.               The most important group in this proposal is the students, they must be aware that engaging in competitive sports is an essential in their physical, emotional, mental and social development. Competitive sports can also enhance the process of their learning. Research Methods             The researcher will conduct survey in some Elementary schools that are accessible to her. The respondents will be asked to answer 10 questions either on paper or online. There will be two models of data collection that will be offered to the respondents (Midwest Research Institute, 1989): <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	School Model- 	which involves sending materials directly to schools and the school will be 	the one to distribute the survey to the respondents.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	Direct Survey- 	the researcher will be the one to distribute the survey and will have much 	greater responsibility for data collection across the schools. The 	researcher will be the one to take charge of tracking responses and ensuring 	that questionnaires were to return to her completely.</li> </ul> There will also be a validation exercise to ensure the validity of the survey and verify the accuracy of the answers of the respondents to the three key questions within the survey. <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	The length of time that children engage in 	Physical Education and school sports.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	The population of the students 	participating in club sport.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	The population of children actively 	involved in sports volunteering and leadership.</li> </ul>   Key Messages             Competitive sports is an integral aspect of an exemplary life, a key, and very likely necessary, part of what makes up this young person. It seems certain that competitive sports involvement is a factor that strongly contributes to the excellence, including academic excellence, of this youngster (NPSC, 2006). Competitive sports, it is believed, teaches youngsters to value accomplishment, set high goals, push hard, stick with it, and get things done, and that approach carries over to their schoolwork (Fizel and Gustafson, 1999). Also there is the assumption that competitive sports on someone’s resume is a help academically because it gives this young person a leg up in getting admitted to a good college. Knowing that I was writing this book, several students sought me out to tell me that playing competitive sports has helped them do better in their classes. They report that they achieve better grades during the season of their particular sport than during the off-season. Among the reasons they cite for this state of affairs are that competitive sports helps them manage their time better, makes them more disciplined, gives them a reason to go to school, cuts the boredom, and just generally gives them a more positive attitude toward school. As for the contribution of competitive sports to academic accomplishment, evidence indicates that when competitive sports is positively linked to academic performance it may be because of things that go along with the competitive sports involvement rather than something inherent in the competitive sports activity itself. sport participation is positively associated with academic achievement and aspirations only when it somehow alters important relationships in a young person’s life. When participation, for whatever reason, leads parents, friends, coaches, counselors, or teachers to take young people more seriously as human beings and as students, and give them more academic support and encouragement, participation will be associated with positive academic outcomes (Midwest Research Institute, 1989). Thus, improved academic performance could, for example, come out of a relationship that the athlete develops with a coach who takes the role of an academic confidant or advocate (New England Interactive, 1999). A youngster might feel less pressure to present an image of academic competence to a coach than to a parent or teacher and therefore be more willing to share academic weaknesses and concerns and accept help. Another possibility is that competitive sports is a highly valued endeavor in schools, and playing competitive sports might lead to a more favorable view of a student among teachers. This could increase the chances of athletes getting the borderline grade called in their favor–for instance, when it is close and could be either a C+ or a B, the student-athlete gets the B. Moreover, children are observers of themselves from age 7 or so onward. They take note of what they do and how well things turn out for them, and these observations remain with them as memories and emotions and conclusions about what they can expect to accomplish (Midwest Research Institute, 1999). Children carry all this feelings, the messages, the observations with them throughout childhood and into adult life, confirming it and elaborating on it as they go along. It is a constantly available inner reality that gives them direction and answers the question, What’s really going to happen to me? By and large, both children and adults “keep their story going” that is, probably without even realizing it, arrange their lives so that things work out just about as, underneath it all, they assume they will. Individuals are just about this successful, no more and no less; just about this happy, no more and no less; just about this loved, this acknowledged, this central, this influential, and so on.   In addition, it must be remembered that even though athletes on the average have slightly higher grades than non-athletes, it does not follow that to be an athlete is to do well in school (New England Interactive, 2004). These are averages, numbers, not people. Individual cases will depart from what is on average so. In fact, a group with a relatively high average could include many who are not doing very well in their schoolwork. The presence of a few highly exceptional students, or the absence of any truly horrendous ones, can boost the average score for the group. Moreover, the nature of the group the athletes are compared to must be taken into account: What if the non-athletes aren’t particularly burning it up in school? In that case, we could have a situation in which athletes are simply relatively better than another group that isn’t all that good themselves (Fizel and Gustafson, 1999). There is some research evidence that whatever the statistical averages might be, there are a good number of student-athletes who do not have positive attitudes about school. A study of 1000 male high school students revealed that half of those in varsity athletics had poor attitudes toward school and poor study habits.    Finally, even if athletes on the average do better academically than non-athletes, that don’t preclude the possibility, that involvement in competitive sports did in fact detract from their schoolwork. It could be that these youngsters would have done even better in their studies if they hadn’t participated in athletics. That is to say, competitive sports might have brought them down some academically, but they were so much better to begin with that they still came out on top of the non-athlete group in school performance. Communication Vehicles             The program will make use of the benefits of technology, The concept of new methods of communication in the new media environment allow smaller groups of people to congregate online and share, sell and swap goods and information. It also allows more people to have a voice in their community and in the world in general. New media as powered by technology makes communication easier and faster. Aside from that, technology makes everything else simpler, easier and faster. Additional professional development activities and resources are continually available to all teachers/researchers: a lending library of videotaped lectures and workshops; professional literature related to concepts and thinking skills; and free on-line short courses on themes such as interdisciplinary learning through visual arts, brain-compatible visual education, and multi-cultural sports education.   Time Table 		Sports Activities 		Date 		Participants 		1. lectures on competitive sports 		curriculum development 		July 		School Administrators, teachers and 		parents. 		2. demonstration and exhibition of 		competitive sports such as basketball, football etc by some 		professionals 		august 		School Administrators, teachers and 		parents 		  		  		students 		Basketball lessons and game 		September 		Teachers and Grades 5-8 		students 		Field hockey lessons and games 		October 		Teachers and girls grade 4-9 		Flag football lessons and games 		November 		Teachers and youth grades 2-8 		Fast Pitch Softball lessons and games 		December 		Teachers and Girls Grades 7-8 		Slow Pitch Softball lessons and games 		January 		Teachers and Girls grades 3-8 		Soccer lessons and games 		February 		Teachers and Girls Grade 3-8 		Basketball lessons and games 		March 		Teachers and Grades 3-4 		Instructional basketball 		April 		Grades 1-2 		Indoor Field Hockey lessons and games 		May 		Grades 4-9 		Touch football lessons and games 		June 		Grades 5-8 		Assessment of the new curriculum and 		program 		July 		School administration and teachers Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Sample Research Proposal Promotion of Competitive Sports in the Elementary School Curriculums

Situation Analysis According to some studies, there are 80% of students that engage in Physical education and school sport ...

Muscular Analysis of The Tennis Backhand

Muscular Analysis of the Tennis Backhand   Introduction             Tennis is one of the most played sports internationally, and the sport where many players become known around the world. Aside from basketball, baseball, and football, a number of tennis players become internationally famous because of having exceptional skills in playing tennis. In addition, tennis is not only the sport that develops international champions, but a playing field for individuals who would like to enjoy while losing weight. Playing tennis not only promote fitness, endurance and stamina on those who play it, but also promotes and develops quality time with one’s self and with one’s family. It also develops a healthy lifestyle, which is anyone’s primary goal in order to function effectively and efficiently in the community and society. In fact, a recent study at Johns Hopkins University regarded tennis is as a ‘heart-healthy’ sport, such that middle-aged men who are active in tennis had significant lower incidences of cardiovascular diseases, thus, referring to the tennis sport as ‘an ideal sport for a healthy heart’ (‘’ 2006). Moreover, because the tennis sport has contributed a lot to the society, it has become one of the most studied sports where scientific research has been applied for developing better performance of its players. In this regard, this paper aims to discuss and analyze the muscles involved in executing the tennis backhand particularly, including the muscles that assist and initiate in the motion. This also includes the leg muscles involved, the actual action of the tennis backhand, and the rest of the body parts.   Tennis Backhand Motion             The backhand motion is the opposite motion of the tennis forehand. In the backhand motion, the forearm is said to flex laterally around the biceps and the elbow, and where the word flex means the folding and unfolding of the arm. A good backhand stroke is a combination of two movements, namely, the external rotation or the action of the bent arm, and the horizontal abduction or the swinging of the arm away from the body. The photos below show the position of the right arm during the backhand motion (‘’ 2007). Fig. 1 Hand Movements of Backhand Motion The photo illustrating the first action of the backhand motion shows that the arms is bent or folded across the stomach. The second, third and fourth photos show that the arm flexes laterally around the elbow or the biceps, and the arm is folded across the body of the player or under the chest muscles in the backswing and then unfolds for the forward swing. The photo below shows the actual handling of the racket in the backhand motion (‘’ 2007).           Fig. 2 Backhand Motion with Racket             The photo shows that in doing the backhand motion, the arm is bent when the racket is back, and unbends when the player swings the racket forward. From this, it can be seen that the upper, medial, and lower arm are the crucial in performing the backhand motion, thus, help to extend the force and the power in hitting the ball (‘’ 2007). In addition, in doing the backhand motion, the action of the arm and the shoulder muscles is not the only source of the force in hitting the ball. The power of the backhand motion also comes from the support of the feet and the rest of the body. In this regard, symmetrical footwork is needed to empower and strengthen the backhand. Movement to the right side means stepping the right foot first and vice versa. Primarily, the back foot is moved first and forward because it keeps the player moving in a forward direction, gets the player close to the ball, holds the player’s balance, prevents sidesteps, and directs the body’s momentum into the ball for power (‘’ 2007). In simple terms, the back foot becomes the dominant foot in executing the backhand motion. In comparison to executing the forehand motion where the feet are positioned in parallel, the feet in executing the backhand motion is positioned such that the other foot is moved backwards than the other, thus, becoming the source of the power.               Aside from the power of the arm and the foot, executing the backhand also involves power from the torso, which involves balance, shifting of weight, and the right angle of turn for a more powerful force. The shift of the body’s weight to empower the backhand stroke means shifting the weight to the ball, where the shift is linear. Aside from shifting weights, rotation of the hips and the body is also another source of power and support for executing the backhand shot. Body rotation is tolerated when the back leg swings around to embrace the contact spot and not when it swings around to the net. An example of a tennis player who does this perfectly is Gustavo Kuerten or Guga who excellently changes the position or angle of his torso over his lower body. His photo below illustrates that his back leg is in the process of coming around during the forward swing to help align his body center or power with the hit, such that it does not wind up farther ahead of the front leg into the court after the hit (‘’ 2007).               Fig. 3 Backhand Motion of Guga   Theoretically, during the backhand motion of the tennis shot, the actions of the right hand described and discussed earlier are being executed, along with the footwork described, and the movements of the torso. In simple terms, doing the backhand motion involves the combination of all the actions described earlier. In this sense, the muscles of the right arm and hand are flexed, the back foot, or the left foot supports the forward foot or the right foot, and the torso or body center is tilted or rotated. With such actions, the tennis player would be able to execute a powerful backhand shot.   Muscles involved in the Backhand Motion               The muscle involved in the execution of the tennis backhand motion is the lateral epicondyle, which is located on the outside or lateral aspect of the upper arm bone or the humerus at the level of the elbow. The lateral epicondyle is a bony prominence that is easily seen and felt. It is the origin of other several muscles that serves to move the wrists and the forearm. The primary function of the lateral epicondyle is to extend the wrist and fingers, and for supination, or turning the palm facing up. In tennis, the lateral epicondyle is crucial in the stabilization and rotation of the racket, and for backhand stroke ( 2007). Specifically, the other muscles attached to the lateral epicondyle are the extensor carpi radialis brevis, the extensor carpi ulnaris, the extensor digiti minimi, the extensor digitorum, and the supinator muscle (‘’ 2007). In addition, the forearm extensor muscles composed of the muscled mentioned above are in action during wrist extension and in executing the backhand stroke. This involves repeated gripping and twisting movements that work the extensor muscles ( 2007).     Below is the illustration of the lateral epicondyle during the backhand motion. From the illustration, it can be seen that the lateral epicondyle is being stretched during the backhand motion, as the arm is flexed and extended. This causes the motion of the upper and lower arm, thus, producing the power of the backhand shot. In this action, all the other muscles attached to the lateral epicondyle serve to extend and abduct the muscles of the hand and wrist joint (‘’ 2007). As stated earlier, the backhand stroke is a combination of two movements, the external rotation of the bent arm and the horizontal abduction of the swinging arm away from the body (‘’ 2007). From this, the lateral epicondyle serves to extend and abduct the bent and the swinging arm to make an effective shot. Moreover, the muscles of the lateral epicondyle are attached to the muscles of the shoulder, thus, helping to facilitate strong movements during the powerful backhand shot.   Fig. 4 Lateral Epicondyle               Along with the action of the lateral epicondyle in the arm of the player, the calf muscles or the gastrocnemius, the Achilles tendon, the plantaris muscle, and the hamstring muscle. The calf muscle or the gastrocnemius is responsible for knee flexion, for plantarflexing the ankle, and for the stabilization of the ankle and the knee when standing. During the backhand motion, the calf muscle is stretched and flexed continuously, as the tennis player runs and exerts effort in hitting the ball. The plantaris muscle is a thin muscle beginning at the lower end of the femur, stretches across the knee joint, and attaches to the back of the heel along with the Achilles tendon. Because it is attached to the Achilles tendon, during backhand motion, the plantaris muscle may be stretched, thus, helping the whole leg and thigh of the tennis player to move. The hamstring muscles are long muscles that extend down the back of the thigh, and work to pull the leg back and bend the knee. These muscles help the athlete run and jump during tennis, while during the backhand shot; these muscles help the back foot extend to maintain balance (‘’ 2006). With the use of such leg and thigh muscles, the tennis athlete would be able to effectively and efficiently execute his powerful backhand shot. Thigh and leg muscles are illustrated below. Fig. 5 Thigh and Leg Muscles             Aside from the leg and thigh muscles to support the arm muscles in executing the backhand shot, the torso muscles are also needed, as the tennis player uses them for rotation. The torso muscles involved include the abdominal muscles, composed of the rectus abdominis and the external and internal oblique muscles. During backhand motion, the tennis player slightly rotates, thus, flexing and extending his external oblique muscles in order to make a powerful backhand shot. The continuous execution of a backhand shot stretches the player’s abdominal muscles, thus, helping the player with the rotation of his torso in order to obtain power from the hips and transfer it to the ball.   Conclusion             The mechanism of the tennis backhand shot is not as simple as it seems. A proper and effective execution of the backhand shot involves not only the major muscles in the arm, but involves the muscles in the thigh, legs, and in the abdomen. In simple terms, the simple execution of a hand movement in tennis still involves the movement of the muscles of the rest of the body. With this, in order for one to excel in tennis, proper care and exercise must be maintained. References Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Muscular Analysis of The Tennis Backhand

Muscular Analysis of the Tennis Backhand Introduction Tennis is one of the most played sports internationally, and the sp...

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