Research Articles Base: UK Topics

NATIONAL ASSISTANCE ACT 1948 IN SCOTLAND

Accommodation National Assistance Act 1948   The National Assistance Act may be a useful tool where YOTs are still dealing with young people over the age of 18.   Section 21 (1) (a) states that:   “A local authority may, with the approval of the Secretary of State and to such extent as he may direct, shall make arrangements for providing -   (a) Residential accommodation for persons aged eighteen or over who by reason of age, illness, disability or any other circumstances are in need of care and attention which is not otherwise available to them…”   It may be possible to call upon social services to exercise a duty under this piece of legislation where a young person aged 18 or over is denied access to housing under the homelessness legislation and lacks the necessary resources to find and maintain alternative accommodation for themselves, e.g. if they are destitute.   See also the 2004 updated guidance on the Act on the Department of Health’s website.     Source:         CIRCULAR SWSG12/72 5456 6 September 1972   Dear Colleague   CHRONICALLY SICK AND DISABLED PERSONS (SCOTLAND) ACT 1972   Summary   1. This Circular provides guidance on the Chronically Sick and Disabled Persons (Scotland) Act 1972, which received Royal Assent on 27 July 1972. The Act extends the application of sections 1 and 2(1) of the Chronically Sick and Disabled Persons Act 1970 to Scotland, with certain amendments to take account of the provisions of the Social Work (Scotland) Act 1968. The other provisions of the 1970 Act already apply to Scotland.   Commencement   2. Section 1 of the 1970 Act came into operation in Scotland on 1 October 1972 under the provisions of the Chronically Sick and Disabled Persons Act 1970 (Government) (Scotland) Order 1972. Section 2(1) of the 1970 Act became effective in Scotland as from the date of enactment of the 1972 Act.   Guidance on the Provisions of the Act   3. The effect of section 1 of the 1970 Act, as applied to Scotland, is to place a duty on local authorities to inform themselves of the number of chronically sick and disabled persons in their area, and of the need for arrangements to be made for such persons under the Social Work (Scotland) Act 1968; to publish from time to time at such times and such manner as they consider appropriate general information as to the services provided under the Act of 1968 which are for the time being available in their area; and to ensure that any person who uses any of those services is informed of any other of those services which in the opinion of the local authority is relevant to his needs   4. The effect of section 2(1) of the 1970 Act is to place a duty on the authority to make arrangements for all or any of the following services where they are satisfied that these services are necessary in order to meet the needs of the person concerned:     (a) the provision of practical assistance for that person in his home;   (b) the provision for that person of, or assistance to that person in obtaining, radio, television, library or similar recreational facilities;   (c) the provision for that person of lectures, games, outings and other recreational facilities outside his home or assistance to that person in taking advantage of educational facilities available to him;   (d) the provision for that person of facilities for, or assistance in, travelling to and from his home for the purpose of participating in any services provided under arrangements made by the authority under the 1968 Act, or, with the approval of the authority, in any service provided otherwise than as aforesaid which is similar to services which could be provided under such arrangements;   (e) the provision of assistance for that person in arranging for the carrying out of any works or adaptation in his home or the provision of any additional facilities designed to secure his greater safety, comfort or convenience;   (f) facilitating the taking of holidays by that person, whether at holiday homes or otherwise and whether provided under arrangements made by the authority or otherwise;   (g) the provision of meals for that person whether in his home or elsewhere; and   (h) the provision for that person, or assistance to that person, to obtain a telephone and any special equipment necessary to enable him to use a telephone.   5. Section 1(2) of the 1972 Act provides that nothing in the provisions of the Act shall derogate from the scope of what local authorities are under a duty to do in respect of any person by virtue of any provision of the Social Work (Scotland) Act 1968. The Act of 1972 accordingly does not affect the general duty of the local authority to promote social welfare under section 12 of the 1968 Act, under which services are already provided for chronically sick and disabled persons and other categories of person in need.   Assessment   6. The task of assessing the needs of each disabled person should be undertaken as a normal part of the authority’s social work service, ie it should be an occasion for consideration of all relevant needs and not merely those to which the section refers; and a judgement whether these needs or others are of prior importance should be drawn from a complete and not a partial picture of the situation. Further advice on assessment and care management is given in Circular No SWSG11/91.   General   7. The Secretary of State expects authorities to have full regard to the provisions of the 1972 Act in the administration and planning of their services. He is aware that a number of the facilities described in the Act, as well as other facilities for the disabled, are already provided by local authorities in the exercise of their duty to promote social welfare under section 12, and by voluntary organisations in accordance with arrangements made under section 4, of the 1968 Act. He also appreciates that, in drawing up their proposals for the future development of the social work services, authorities must take account of many other claims on their resources in addition to those of the disabled. Nevertheless, he expects services for the disabled to benefit from the increased provision which is being made for the social work services, and asks authorities to be as generous as possible within the resources available in their provision of services for this purpose.   Source:   Care in the Community From Jump to: navigation, search Care in the Community was a policy of the Margaret Thatcher government in the 1980s. Its aim was a more liberal way of helping people with mental health problems, by removing them from impersonal, often Victorian, institutions, and caring for them in their own homes. Also, better drugs became available and this meant that patients could be treated at home. It was also meant to reduce the cost of institutionalizing so many mentally ill people.   Although there have been some murders by a few people in the community with mental health problems, the truth is that it is far more likely that someone with mental health problems will be subject to attack by someone who is healthy themselves. [1]   The National Health Service and Community Care Act 1990 was passed so that patients were to be individually assessed, and assigned a specific care worker; in the unlikely event that they presented a risk they were to be placed on a Supervision Register. But there have been some problems with patients “slipping through the net” and ending up homeless on the street. There have also been arguments between Health and Social Services departments on who should pay.   In January 1998, the Labour Health Secretary, , said the care in the community programme launched by the Conservatives had failed (, 1998. Retrieved on September 26, 2005.).   The situation in London has long been particularly difficult. People with psychiatric problems, particularly drug and alcohol abuse, and schizophrenia gravitate to London from all over the world and from all over the country. However, funding for health care in London has been redistributed to the provinces and the proportion of the overall NHS budget spent on mental health services has declined from 11% to 9%. Many psychiatric beds have been closed. In order to get better psychiatric bed utilisation, psychiatric wards became mixed sex wards and the pressure on beds has meant that the level of disturbance on the acute psychiatric wards has become much greater.   Some of the resultant initiatives have been largely cosmetic. For example, assertive outreach has been widely promoted for difficult cases. The team have a small caseload and are able to dedicate intensive resources. In consequence, the teams often have a waiting list of years and are only prepared to accept patients with severe, treatment resistant schizophrenia.   Source: 2002 source:   1 THE ACT – AN OVERVIEW 3. The Act gives effect to the proposals in the White Paper “Partnership for Care” and fulfils the commitments in the Partnership Agreement (“: ” published in May 2003) to bring forward legislation to reform the National Health Service (“NHS”) by introducing provisions in relation to: � the dissolution of NHS Trusts; � establishing Community Health Partnerships; � placing a duty on Health Boards to co-operate with each other, with Special Health Boards and with the Common Services Agency, in the interests of developing more effective regional planning of health services; � extending Ministerial powers to intervene to secure the quality of healthcare services; � placing a duty on Health Boards and Special Health Boards to involve the public in the planning, development and operation of health services; and � placing a duty on the Scottish Ministers and Health Boards to take action to promote health improvement. 4. The Act also includes provisions in relation to: � the governance of NHS staff; � the promotion of equal opportunities in the NHS; and � certain minor and consequential amendments and repeals. These notes relate to the National Health Service Reform (Scotland) Act 2004 (asp 7) which received Royal Assent on 11 June 2004 5. The Act primarily impacts upon the National Health Service (Scotland) Act 1978 (“the 1978 Act”) by repealing and amending provisions of that Act and by inserting new sections into it. 6. The Act is in three Parts: � Part 1: Organisation and operation of National Health Service; � Part 2: Promotion of health improvement; � Part 3: Supplementary   source:       Regulation of Care (Scotland) Act 2001 The Regulation of Care (Scotland) Act 2001 (the Act) established a system of care regulation in Scotland.  The Act‘s purpose is to provide greater protection for people in need of care services. We are required by the Act to regulate certain care services. The Act was made by Scottish Parliament and empowers Scottish Ministers to make regulations and orders to meet the Acts requirements. We register and inspect services against a set of National Care Standards.  The standards outline the quality of service that care service users have the right to expect.  They have been developed with the intention that the quality of care provided and received throughout Scotland will be consistent.  The standards also ensure that all care services will be measured against a set of general principles.  We produce inspection reports for each service once an inspection has taken place. Source: Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

NATIONAL ASSISTANCE ACT 1948 IN SCOTLAND

Accommodation National Assistance Act 1948 The National Assistance Act may be a useful tool where YOTs are still dealing with young p...

BRITISH TRADE UNIONS’ DECLINE (1979 )

British Trade Unions’ Decline (1979) Introduction             This paper discusses the background and reasons why the membership of British Trade Unions experienced decline and difficulties particularly during 1979.  It was during this time when the Conservative government, led by Thatcher, that membership of British unions eventually decline.  Statistically, the union membership has declined over 20 percent within the same year (, 1989).   (1989) view the government’s strongly unfavorable treatment of unions as a powerful force.  However, he argues that economic and structural changes such as the growth of temporary and part-time workers and the decline of the manufacturing sector are likely to have more lasting adverse effects.  Nevertheless, unions were adapting various strategies in trying to counteract the decline of their membership including innovative organizing methods and expanded services for members.  Despite the fact that British unions made a lot of actions for the government’s continuous recognition of their cause, the period of 1979 marked the start of a bitter times for the unions accounting to several causes and explanations.    Crisis in Trade Union             Before 1979 (i.e. 1968 to 1979), the membership of British trade unions grew by almost a third reaching its height of membership at 1972 to 1979.  However, with the onset of the new government, the engine of growth has gone into a complete turn around in 1979.  The total gains in membership from 1968 to 1979 have all vanished that can be accounted to 43 percent in 1985.              The fall in membership cause to exceed the fall in employment over the whole period largely because of the continuing contraction of manufacturing and other industries in which unions have traditionally been strongest.  Rising employment after 1983 has mainly been in the service sector, where unions have greater organizational problems so that total membership and density continued to fall at much the same rate. Factors of Membership’s Decline Since the return of the Conservatives to government in 1979, British industrial relations have been pushed, pulled, and reshaped by a combination of external and internal influences. Some see the process of change and adaptation now under way as irreversible, particularly since the re-election of the Conservative Party to government in the summer of 1987. They point in particular to the dramatic decline in trade union membership associated with a battery of powerful, negative influences, such as the persistence of high levels of unemployment and major changes in the composition of the labor force. Others question the significance of the decline in membership, however, citing the relative stability of day-to-day industrial relations and trade union influence at the level of the workplace.  The Government’s Theoretical Stand The Thatcher administration had rolled the wheel of the trade union’s fate.  As trade unions increasingly became perceived as powerful labor market monopolies that generated inflation and reduced efficiency, the simple reliance on monetary targets to control wage settlements was abandoned.  Even though the British government views industrial relation as an essential factor for an economic recovery, it has also accused trade unions to have been using their power in ways which unfavorably affected labour costs, productivity and jobs ( &  1990).  The government back up this allegations with some reasonable evidences.  (1) Trade unions tended to push up the earnings of people they represented associated with the view that excessive pay increases.  (2) There is a tendency for trade unions to reduce employment.  It was disputed that workers who are displaced from the union sector will tend to put downward pressure on wages in the non-union sector.  As a result, non-union wages may compare adversely with unemployment benefits and unions will have ended up increasing unemployment.  The government has thus seen its industrial relation legislation as, in part, an attempt to curb the power of unions to push up wages. On this view, legislative success would have affect reducing the so-called ‘non-accelerating inflation rate of unemployment’ (NAIRU), and will consequently assist in the battle against inflation.  Additionally, during 1980-1984, managements who recognized and negotiated with trade unions claimed that they were less likely to experience job gains and were more likely to suffer job losses than managements who did not.              There were also unacceptable characteristics of trade union that have also caused its membership to fall.  First, it has been found that the use of strikes interrupts production, distracts managers, and damages the country’s economic reputation.  The government, therefore, necessitates the reduction of union’s capacity to deploy sanctions.  Second, there was a belief that the union’s character is greatly influenced by the manner of their internal government, specifically, it is implied that unions will better serve the national economic interest if their leadership are more directly accountable to their members.    The 1980s’ Legislation             There has been a constant stream of legislation.  The Employment Act 1980 and the Employment Act 1982 dealt with various aspects of collective action and trade unions’ civil liability to fines.  The Trade Union Act 1984 was mainly concerned with the use of ballots in union decision-making.  The Employment Act 1988 was primarily aimed at increasing the rights of individual members against their trade unions.  The Employment Act 1989 inter alia made it more difficult for shop stewards to organize multi-plant bargaining.  The prospective Employment Bill 1989 concentrates on the control of unofficial strikers, a ban on all secondary action and pre-entry closed shops.  The Wages Act 1986 stands apart, being mainly aimed at reducing the scope of wages council’s statutory minimum wage rates.             Moreover, there were two issues concerning industrial happening which have become repeated political nuisance.  The first is the closed shop, an arrangement under which it is understood that union membership is a necessary condition for retaining a job. Originally, closed shops were important for union solidarity, especially where union strength relied upon the control of the supply or qualifications of labour.  However, its nature has changed which made the employers as the ones who play the role in maintaining them.  Correspondingly, the 1980 and 1982 Acts attempted to regulate the enforcement of post-entry closed shops and the 1988 Act made all action to enforce a closed shop illegal.  The 1989 Bill promises to ban the fairly small proportion of ‘pre-entry’ closed shops where union membership is a prior condition of employment ( and , 1984).  The second politically conspicuous issue is picketing, the attempt to consolidate strike action by the act of trade union representatives publicizing their cause outside the workplace in question. In 1984, picketing occurred in some form approximately by 15 percent of strikes.  But it has been a small minority of ‘mass’ picketing episodes with accompanying civil disorders that have prompted new laws.             Of much greater significance has been the change in the circumstances in which unions involved in industrial action are liable to be sued for damages. Under British law the qualified ‘immunity’ from such action is the equivalent of a right to strike in other countries.  The 1980 and 1982 Acts removed such immunities when action is taken against employers who are secondary to the dispute, or when the action is for political objectives, or when the dispute is between employees.  The 1982 Act narrowed unions’ immunities to very specific torts and the 1984 Act tied them to particular balloting requirements.  The result is that substantial damages can now be awarded against unions in a variety of tort actions and failure to pay that will result in sequestration of assets.  This has substantially increased both the opportunity and the incentive for strike-hit employers to obtain court injunctions against unions to require their members to desist.  The 1989 Employment Bill promises to make unions responsible even for unofficial action if they have not expressly repudiated it.    Conclusion             Looking at the comprising factors and reasons that clearly explain the decline of British trade union membership, we can therefore bring this to an important and general idea.  The changes on British industrial relations since 1979 are to be found on three coordinating aspects:  the economy, employment, and government intervention.  These three aspects have complex relationships among them since changes in employment are partly determined by economic change, and government intervention both influences and is influenced by developments in the economy and employment.              What has being portrayed in the above statement is the intervention of the government which counts the very reason for the decline of membership of British trade unions.  The actions taken by the government towards trade unions have been of enormous effect to the industrial relation.  It would also be important to take into consideration the reasons and justifications for every action that the government have taken.  The legislations and government’s standpoint opposing trade unions were just a reaction to the setbacks perceived by the government.  After all, it has been the concern for economic development and reforms that binds the British trade unions and the government together for a common purpose.  It is just hurting to know the fact that trade union has given way for the government’s way in managing the country.    References                Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

BRITISH TRADE UNIONS’ DECLINE (1979 )

British Trade Unions’ Decline (1979) Introduction This paper discusses the background and reasons why the membership of Brit...

THE MARKET RESEARCH INDUSTRY IN UNITED KINGDOM

Introduction   The market research industry in United Kingdom has appeared to be flourishing in the past years. This has been the observation of  (2001) in his study. The success of UK market research industry has been established by  in the initial part of the article stated the existence of hundreds of organizations in the field of market research. This presents that there is indeed an actual thriving industry for such field. Even though the author has established that there is indeed a considerable success in the said field, he goes further by analyzing the reasons for the success of the industry, particularly in the UK setting. Particularly, the objectives of his study revolve around the “perceived” reason why the said industry is flourishing. This means that the basic source of his findings would come primarily on a set of respondents stating responses to particular issues relating to the market research industry.       Literature Review   The principle of conducting a literature review for a researcher is to establish solutions on the subject of what is recognized on a theme. Similarly, researchers evaluate previous research to build up more intelligent and highly noteworthy issues about atheme,( 1994).  In addition, (1994) has recommended previous literature that may also be accounted for as a channel for establishing the case and unit of examination.  It is similarly declared that most academics like better to measure it up to their findings with preceding reseacrh(, 1994). This part of the paper is going to discuss the use of literature on the article of . Specifically, the structure, theme, and theoretical framework are going to be presented and analyzed in this part.   Structure   In the case written in the article of , the structure of the review of literature has been predominantly employed to create a great defense of the employment of such methodology. Specifically, the use of the qualitative form was the main aspect of the citation of past literature on the said article. The author’s attempt to justify the use of such method in a research that intends to measure the responses of the respondents from the research market industry reveals the author’s intention to “maintain an objective approach to the study.”   Theme   The work of  rested on the assumption that the market research industry of the United Kingdom is indeed at a successful stage. Although there are a meager number of sources that indicated of such success, the discussions of the said author depended on his idea. He merely cited the 2000  to claim that there is indeed success in the said field. He noted that there are hundreds of research companies that existed in the UK market research industry. However, he failed to realize that the number of companies that exists in an industry is not the sole determinant of success in the said field. In this aspect, ‘s central theme of success in the market research area is seen as weak, considering lacking of any other proof from past and present literature regarding such claim of success.    Theoretical Framework   In the article, the author tried to establish that the “perceived” reasons for the success of the research market industry is basically homogenous in every respondent company. He made use of the social constructionist approach as a framework for his discussions regarding the said reasons for success.     In doing so, he assumed that the groups generate and uphold their accounts of reality through symbolic contact. That is to say that mutually consented and corroborated symbols describe reality and truth for their validating communities, in this context the market research community. Information is, consequently, anchored and entrenched within socially consequent symbolic structures. The use of such rhetoric as symbolic advocacy is a basic component in the social construction of reality which is evident in the discussions of . Even a scientific community’s account of reality anchors on rhetoric. By pointing out to a scientific community which is akin to the market research community, even those communities that perceive their work to be most directly connected with that “objective,” communicatively create their social setting. This goes to show, based on the articles, that a social constructionist approach does not automatically discharge the subsistence of an objective reality. To a certain extent, the written approach which is employed by  distinguishes the impracticality of purely and wholly characterizing an objective reality.   Conclusion   The article of  emphasized more on the use of literature to justify the methodology he employed in the study. In doing so, there is a lack of justification that presents a clearly successful market research industry. He should have used a literature review in order to provide an introductory discussion of the actual relevance of his intent to present the “perceived” reasons for the success of the said industry.   References Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

THE MARKET RESEARCH INDUSTRY IN UNITED KINGDOM

Introduction The market research industry in United Kingdom has appeared to be flourishing in the past years. This has been the observ...

SOCIAL POLICIES IN UNITED KINGDOM 2

I.                  Introduction   In the political setting of the state, the social polices governing the operations of the government creates a significant impact to the entire population. These policies include ratified government legislation, both locally and centrally, that is geared towards addressing the social needs of the population. To a certain extent these legislations are considered policies attempting to enhance the welfare of the public. Aspects such as social security, housing, healthcare, and education constitute these social policies. In the current trend of internationalization and globalization, the said concepts are continuously changing to adapt to the existing situations that states have to contend with. This paper intends to describe the existing meaning and usage of such terms in the current context of Britain. Moreover, the paper similarly intends to take a historical look on how the welfare state is shaped through several social movements. In addition in analyzing the effects of economic theories on the social policies of states, the study will also take into consideration the other welfare states in different western countries. To this end, the welfare state in the western setting will be established and differentiated with one another.             II.               Welfare state Contemporary welfare state in the context of Great Britain started subsequent on the Second World War. After a considerable loss of resources brought about by the ravages of war, England assumed an industrial capitalist society wherein it has significantly reduced the power of the state to control the economic factors in the market. In doing so, it created a surge of employment among the citizens of the country. , 2004,) With these set of circumstances, the government has assisted families in UK with regards to their acquisition of income. However, given the changes in leadership in the subsequent years, the concept of the welfare state has similarly altered frequently.   On the current setting, the current welfare state that UK is experiencing is considered as a ‘’liberal welfare state.” (, 2004, ) This may be primarily being the case considering the domination of the Labour Party on the ratification of social policies in the state. Considered as a “highly centralized liberal-leaning” with regards to the arrangement and framework, the social objective still remains to adhere to the basic principle of the welfare state: enhancing the well-being of the public. However, the setting of such concept has considerably concentrated to a more specific part of society. As compared to the earlier context of the welfare state wherein the primary focus is on the provision of employment for breadwinners, the current policies now take into consideration the well-being of particular groups of people who appears to be disadvantaged in some ways. These include lone parents, disabled individuals, and working mothers among others. (, 2004, )   In the worke and  (2003) they have similarly characterized the United Kingdom’s welfare state as a liberal model. In this setting, the said authors have indicated that the model in which UK uses in its welfare policies largely depend on the lower level of the government. Similarly, the spending that entails from that part of the government, particularly with reference to social welfare spending, is directly connected to the state’s non-profit sector. In addition to the claim, since UK is using such a model, it appears that the non-profit sector of the said state is considerably large. A huge non-profit sector connotes that voluntary approaches, devoid of the intervention of the government, are the preferred way to deal with the social conditions of the state. With this assumption, the said authors have indicated that United Kingdom, in its modern concept of the welfare state, have limited itself in its spending for social welfare. ( and , 2004, )   Based on the discussion in this part of the paper, the concept of the welfare state in UK has significantly changed in the past years. In the post-war era, the government have taken steps to aid the industries to help the public establish a source of living. On the other hand, the current period revealed that the government have considerably diminished its spending on social welfare and placed that commission on the hands of the civil society. From its roots and initial initiatives of the post-war era to the current labour dominated policies, the future of the welfare state is still vague. This may well be true considering the fact that the social policies are similarly subject to change the moment the ruling party changes.      III.            The Women’s Movement and the Welfare State   The setting of UK with regards to its workforce has significantly been altered during the post-war era. These changes took place as a result of the majority of the male breadwinners’ drafting to the fight in the war. As a result, a lot of female workers have taken their place in the industries which were formerly dominated and solely administered by the male workforce. This surge of women in acquiring positions for paid employment has triggered a different view on the welfare state provided for by the British administration. In the place of men, the women’s movement to the employment sector adhered intimately to Marx’s context of a “reserve army of labour.” (, 1996, )   Theoretically, the concept of the welfare state in the feminist perspective represents a government that stands for male-centric policies and interests. Nevertheless, regardless of such condition, these theories also suggest that women could also penetrate through the system if only they are given the proper representation. (, 1999,) Even though the welfare state has given the opportunity for the female population as represented in the conditions on the post-war decades, the claims of the feminist theories presents a contradictory view on the said concept. This may probably be true as reflected in the 1942  Report as it imply for women to return to doing their domestic duties. (, 2004, )   However, the government, with the help of women’s movement have significantly altered the face of the concept of welfare state by enhancing the condition of employment among the male and female populations. To illustrate, the government ratified the Equal Pays Act of 1970 which rests in the assumption that men and women who perform the same jobs are entitled to same terms of employment, including pay and incentives( , 1997) This is further reinforced by 1975 Sex Discrimination Act, which was later amended in 1986, to care for the rights of the female workers and protect their welfare in the workplace.ll and(, 2000, ) To this context, the possibility of direct or indirect discrimination in the workplace has been considerably been reduced. Though there are still isolated cases of discrimination, at a certain degree, the claims of the feminists’ theories on the welfare state are slowly yet surely becoming a reality with the help of government initiatives to provide equal opportunities for male and females. The women’s movement has significantly changed the face of the welfare state in such a way that it provided equal opportunity for women in the employment sector. In this manner, this has opened the door for the female population in other aspects like social mobility, financial stability, and professional opportunities.               IV.           Welfare States in Western Countries   There are several different kinds of welfare states. Social policies differ from one state to another. The work of  (2003) clearly states this existence of diversity in terms of the welfare state. The said author took on several typologies of welfare states, specifically occupational and universalistic. (, 2003) The occupational model of the welfare state is anchored on the work performance of the social policies of the said states. It is further divided into a couple of divisions, occupational pure (France, Belgium, Germany, Austria) and occupational mix (Switzerland, Italy, Netherlands, Ireland). On the other hand, those under the universalistic model include the states which adhere to citizenship principles. The said model is similarly divided into universalistic pure (Finland, Norway, Denmark, and Sweden) and universalistic mix (New Zealand, Canada, and Great Britain).   According to the work of  (2000) those countries under the occupational model possess a traditional framework in the family setting wherein the male is the breadwinner and the female is the home-maker. She called this the “male breadwinner model.” It rests on the assumption that in the said states, with the family as a reference point, majority are dependent to a single breadwinner in a household. In such a situation, the countries pigeon-holed in the said category possess laws and legislation on social security laws such as survivor’s pension and health insurance.   On the other hand,  (2003,) also coined the “dual-earner model” where both male and female are breadwinners for the family. This represents states where the policies are extended to the individual earner as compared to the previous model concentrating to the dependents. It represents states that regard employment equality and other entitlements such as pension rights. This is especially true in the context of Great Britain considering the previous discussions regarding the elevation of the status of women in the employment sector. The legislation ratified in the context of UK, bears corresponding attributes to that taken by  (2003).                 V.              Keynes and Social Policy   Theoretical explanation of state policies has been used to justify the actions of states with regards to their social policies. In this part of the paper, the use of Keynesianism as a theory complementing social policy will be discussed. Keynesianism is normally characterized as a way of thinking particularly geared towards the maintenance of political stabilization. Howevelis (2000,) goes further in stating that it is more than an economic theory, it is an “expansionary strategy” for the development directly related to social and institutional models geared towards balancing the interests of the public. Nevertheless, the said author never discounted the fact that it is capitalist accumulation that drives this way of thinking. To a certain extent, the claims of the said author in this context remain to be limited in controlling the social aspects of capital accumulation, and in doing so, controlling the policies directly affecting the social aspects of the country; the established welfare state.    On a more basic level, the model provided by Keynes represents a mixed economy wherein the state and private sector works hand in hand.  In the context of social policy, Keynes’ views on the existence of “chronic unemployment” and how economic concepts like price sensitivity, wage rates and monetary policy contribute to this phenomenon. (, 2001 3) Although there is a common denominator in such themes seeking to deal with the reduction of unemployment or even the pursuit of full employment, a more definitive claim of these thinkers is based on the use of monetary expansion on the elimination of unemployment. To some degree, monetary expansion as it appears on the discussions of these academics presents a very inadequate tool to address the issue of expanding employment in society.         VI.           Conclusion The contemporary welfare state’s understood function is to supply stability to the present market driven social order. Equality in the form of either specific or universal terms is not a rule of the society, instead citizens are provided the smallest amount needed to carry on and not bother the operation of that society. The resources that are given to people within the state in most societies are not a utility of their need but instead a function of their donation to society prior to their need for a redistribution to come about. The welfare state along with the social policies present in the current period has these objectives in place, though there have been several improvements and developments towards these ends, UK still have a long way to go. VII.        References   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

SOCIAL POLICIES IN UNITED KINGDOM 2

I. Introduction In the political setting of the state, the social polices governing the operations of th...

Social Policies in United Kingdom

Social Policies in United Kingdom               The social policies of countries, while having some similarities on the implementation of regulations, also have their own uniqueness. These do not only refer to the differences regarding the implementation, but also with regards to the views that accompany these and therefore the motivation behind their execution. As such, the culture of the people are also considered as important factors for these social policies, and it is through these changes that the country is able to hold their abilities into different accounts. Such of these play important roles in the formulation of the regulations and the laws.             The welfare states and social policies within the United Kingdom can be based on their own culture and specific events that have contributed to the ideas that allows for the care that can be given to the citizens. With the primary concern of the government being the safety of their people, there are several limitations as well as responsibilities that need to be addressed in the part of the government officials, the service workers, and—of course—the citizens themselves in order for them to avail of these services. It should also be remembered that these services are greatly derived from the economic performance of the country, especially as the corporation can provide for the basic needs of their citizens. The inclusion of this factor can also give a general overview of the current social welfare regulations that are being implemented.             This essay aims to assess the social policies and the welfare state of the United Kingdom with emphasis on its ties to Keynesianism and Neoliberalism theories. Such focus gives a more elaborate assessment on the current designs of the UK social policies and also the different reactions that citizens are having on them. Moreover, the focus of this study is to assess how these theories are proving the implemented changes on the regulations and therefore following the ideas that were provided as adjustments for the government.   Welfare State and Social Policy in Specific Areas             The current state of the country is highly dependent on its economy and therefore also constitutes the various businesses and companies that are within the country. Even with the consideration for these, there is also the need to identify with the culture of the people and include practical ideas that will also involve beliefs from various parts of the country while also including the ideas that will generally be helpful for the rest of the citizens. Such considerations take some time to work, and there is always the decision to focus on the possible ways that these can be achieved. The government, being a public figure, has the responsibility of specifying the definitions that should be included in the regulations.             The welfare state is provided by the government to the public as per their rights for living and for survival. This responsibility stems from the idea that the country should righteously provide for their citizens, including their basic needs and some of their requirements. This does not necessarily mean, however, that everything should be given, rather some specific needs—such as health services and rights to living and for protection—should also be considered. These benefits being offered to the people are part of the what the government may be able to offer according to the economy that they have and how they can seriously provide for the needs of the people. One of the greater reasons for this is to avoid the possibility of poverty overrunning the country and also immobilizing the state (2000)             The United Kingdom has a very serious regard for the welfare states and for their citizens. The social policies include the needs and advantages that the citizens will be able to gather as per their rights. The responsibility on providing for them is based on the government, yet an exchange is also expected. Insurances for the people have been made, and thus has also been one of the priorities of many countries, including the United Kingdom. However, despite the idea that the benefits are actually provided only by the government, there is also the idea of exchange between the citizens and the government itself, in order to give each other their own advantages and benefits.             These services can vary according to the countries. In the United Kingdom, there are several aspects to the living condition that requires the government to provide for the needs of the people and also to give them the service that they are in need of. Because of the regions within the country, however, each of them are given their own context to work, although this is made easier because of the differences of their culture and also makes it easier to provide for the information that can be given to the citizens. There are various ways that these can be provided for the people, and the amount of benefits that can be given to the people need to be sorted out. This, however, can fall on the various departments of the United Kingdom depending on the services that can be given; yet with the country, there are only specific departments that can provide for these services (2003). Besides medical attention, there is also the provisions for the work of people who are unemployed, as well as pensions for honored citizens after some time, thus releasing them from the burden of becoming more inclined to work even after retirement. Finally, there is also the need to offer education and other various skills that can be given, including sports and knowledge that helps with the building of the rapport of the younger people.             From this, it can be gathered that the welfare state focuses on providing for the various needs of the people as based on the economic provisions of the country. However, the spending for the people is required to be based on a specific budget and can only be provided on a particular provision, especially as they come to be a part of the department and must also be looked into by the heads of the state. Moreover, there is also the question on whether the people who are being given the benefits.             Competition between these sectors can be based on the quality of the service that they offer to their clients and thus intimately involve the management that each of the sectors may provide. Provisions on the standards that they the organisation must adhere to must also be examined.  (1999) has provided a comprehensive method of policy implementation that the government-based health system may be able to follow. Here, the author discussed that there are several ways for implementations to be followed, either through the various decisions of the members, through peer consideration, and even through the influence of the private sections. Globalisation was also discussed in relation to the approaches that the organisation may take, especially as it allows for the expansion in the information that they will be able to gather for the improvement of their services. Communication has also played a vital part in the determination of the direction of the decisions concerning the health services as well as the ideas that they may establish for their practice. Changes on the policies may be brought about by different methods, some of which include the changes of the outcome and the beliefs, activities within the country, the development of their knowledge, and even through the changes with the ones in power within the organisation as well as the people within the government. At the same time, the author has also pointed out that health should not only be defined on the confines of the medical abilities and facilities that can be provided for the patients but also with the establishment of other factors that may also affect their condition. As such, continued evaluation of the definitions and the methods for judging the rest of the people are mentioned.   Labour Movements within the Corporations             Because of the involvement of the benefits and the advantages that can be given to the people, there is also the question on whether these benefits are actually equal to their achievement. Such exchange is what keeps the strategy alive and continues to improve the methods used by the departments. At the same time, the changes ongoing in many parts of the world, including the economic and the cultural changes, have also contributed with the supposed eventual direction that the working employment have been going to. Not only with regards to the working condition, the lifestyles and living conditions of the people have also been affected, thus in turn also affecting their decisions and also the ways in which they view specific ideas and cultures.             The practices all around in the past 50 years can be seen by the prevailing paradigms that have persisted and have eventually evolved, and one of the greatest change is through the advantages that can be given to the workers. Capitalism has also contributed to the economic changes within the country, which involves the interrelationships between the private and public sectors. Such interaction are contributive to the different ideas that can be done and also provides for new economic relations from which both are also contributive to the future of the community and also thus provide for the needs of the people. Fundamental changes have also brought changes to the contemporary British social policies with the perceptions that are being used by the government. As provided by  (1987) the outline for the aims and benefits of the government and the economy when it comes to providing for the society, it shows that more or less the society is now more provided especially as the departments now have their own insight on the direction that their projects are taking.             These changes are not only limited to the economy, yet it is also one of the greatest changes in the government as the public and private sectors are now also focusing on their economy and involving the different projects as they consider their continuation. Moreover, as was given, the paradigms of the people have also become changed. The relationships between the organisations come from the current cultural changes that the people have, and thus also works on the capitalist notions as are being considered by many ( 2001). Unions are one of the primary indications of these changes, contributing to the nation as they indicating to the citizens are being included.   Health Services as Organisational Direction             As was discussed in the previous sections, health services can be offered through several means in different countries, mostly provided through either the government or the private provisions. This can be based on several accounts, one of which is the continued development of culture thus helping with the direction which the services will go. Health care can be based on different decisions of the people and may also be based on the training that the service-worker may have. The changes that they have may also be reflective of the decisions of the person themselves, thus putting the individual’s cognitive behaviour into the study. Income (therefore the economy of the country) is also a major factor for the decisions that a person may have regarding the decisions to take advantage of health services (1991).             At the same time, other factors may also contribute to the development of the services that the people receive. Besides the established factors, which are economics, culture, and individual cognition, as based on the assessment of the current outcome of the society, there is also the changes that have undergone the facilities, technologies, and thus resulting to the changes with the service that the patients are receiving. It should be remembered that technology is one of the contributing factors that has also allowed for changes, transformation, and development of the health service. study on the relationship of income and health service (1999) has yielded some other results that focused on the use of technology on the health service as based on the choices of the worker. It managed to showcase some of the changes within the department of scientific medicine including dentistry, pharmaceutical products, and even optometry. Information on the effects of certain surgeries and traditional methods of healing were also analysed based on the needs of the patient, thus showing the methods that such these current researches will be affected.              (1991) meanwhile included the perspective of using communication in improving the organisational system, especially in offering health service. Here, the authors also considered that communication is an important part of the development of ways to improve ideas over the years despite the geographical constraints and other hindrances as well as focusing on the ready availability of records and information which will give the health workers the data that they may need in record time which will effectively help the patient in gaining the needed help in time. The authors pointed out that formal organisation may be helpful in the mindset of the people in attempting to transform their services over time; while behaviour and decisions are undoubtedly part of the development of the corporation, the use of technology ca also be helpful for the methods in which the workers will be able to easily store and retrieve their findings.             The availability of technology is also viewed as a method of extending the life of a person and also gives the means for finding ways of the cause for the problem. Indeed, technology has continued to escalate over the years and almost every month new studies and information are being distributed concerning the development of technology as a beneficial use for the maintenance of health. Highlighted in a chapter by   (1941), the development of technology during such a time shows that there has been considerable change in how society manages, accepts, and possibly even rejects the idea of artificial means being a contributing factor for the survival of people. Education and experimentation has developed since then and now has become a regular fixture in the offers that health services may be able to provide. The question on their use, however, may be based on the decisions of the people, the national health organisation, and even the clinic and hospitals themselves. Technology has become a fixed practice in health care that  (1997) pointed out that this now contributes to the changes with regards to social status and expectations, especially regarding infant mortality rates and regarding them as the social mirror of societies’ socioeconomic standing (147). Such development continues to remain as a question of either the reflection of medical societies’ development in study or the fall of the social consciousness.     Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Social Policies in United Kingdom

Social Policies in United Kingdom The social policies of countries, while having some similarities on the implementation...

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) in the United Kingdom

1. Discuss the current guidelines which are relevant to the safe practice of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) in the United Kingdom. Since its arrival in the UK in the mid 1980s, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has been hailed as a major advance in diagnostic imaging technology. MRI uses powerful magnets and radio frequencies, together with sophisticated viewing software, to produce high quality, cross sectional images of the patient’s body ( 1999). Unlike x-ray exams, which use radiation, magnetic resonance (MR) images are created with magnetic fields and radio waves. MR scanning is a very safe and effective technique for examining the body’s soft tissues, such as organs, muscles, ligaments and tendons ( 2002). One of the advantages of MRI is its apparent absence of adverse effects on the patient. Unlike the ionizing radiation used in ordinary radiographic studies, this technique does not pose any risk of genetic damage (1990). However, because MR scanning uses a powerful magnet, patients and healthcare professionals alike need to know about some special precautions and check-in procedures in order to provide safe practice. A critical component of the MRI system is the magnet, which has undoubtedly tremendous strength. Performing any healthcare practice like surgery near a high magnetic field posed an interesting challenge for healthcare team members. The invisible magnetic force of the MRI system is strong enough to pull mop buckets, stretchers, and heavy-duty floor buffers into the bore of the magnet–it can even turn oxygen tanks into flying projectiles. Serious injury or death can occur from being struck with such objects. Accordingly, personal items such as scissors, loose change, pagers, pins, and identification badges are strictly forbidden in areas with MRI ( 1999).             In addition to creating projectile hazards, magnetic fields also can affect biomedical implants. MR scanning is contraindicated for any patient with a pacemaker, especially if even temporary malfunction of the device would endanger the patient’s health. The magnetic field can interfere with electromagnetic devices and cause serious damage to the internal components of pacemakers, inner ear implants, and neurostimulators (1999). Magnetic fields can cause pacemakers to malfunction at fields as low as 17 G, and some pacemakers may be affected by fields as low as 5 G. It is recommended, therefore, that anyone equipped with a pacemaker stay outside the 5 G line. In high field MR units, the 5 G line will extend farther from the scanner than it does with conventional units (1996). Patients who have had previous surgeries, have had metal in their eyes, or have implants are at risk and must be thoroughly screened before undergoing MRI (1999).             The incorporation into UK law of the 2004 EU Physical Agents Directive, to impose legal limits on electromagnetic field (EMF) exposure, will result in significant restrictions on the use of MRI, for which there is no evidence of harm; it will obstruct plans to reduce X-ray exposure, for which there is a longstanding and clear evidence of harm, notably from increased risk of cancers. The EU Physical Agents Directive seeks to define safe levels for equipment operators’ exposure to electromagnetic fields. The directive puts limits on the exposure of operating staff from zero frequency up to 300GHz. Cautionary use of MR equipment is already standard. The very first set of MRI clinical guidelines was produced by NRPB in Britain.             New European regulations threaten to reverse pioneering advances in the use of MRI to diagnose disease and treat patients. By 2008, many interventional MR procedures will be illegal, and it may be more difficult to use the most powerful, modern (high field) scanners ().   2. Explain how scan times can be kept to a minimum in MRI. As the name implies, MRI uses a strong magnet to create a static magnetic field. Tesla is the unit used to measure the strength of the magnetic field. A magnet with 1.0 tesla field strength would have a stronger magnetic field and be more forceful than a magnet with a 0.5 tesla magnetic field (2003). In a conventional 1.5 T machine, the scanner has an operational field strength approximately 30,000 times as strong as the earth’s magnetic field. In the new machines, field strength can be increased by a factor of 3 or 4. This situation amplifies the known hazards of operating a powerful magnet. The most obvious of these dangers is ferromagnetic attraction (1996). The strength of this magnet is usually tremendous — about 30,000 times stronger than the magnetic held of the earth. To contain its magnetic field and eliminate the need for steel shielding in the walls of the OR, the magnet is actively shielded. This means that, within the magnet, a secondary magnetic coil of opposite polarity is outside of the main magnetic coil. The secondary coil greatly reduces the magnetic fringe field that extends into the area surrounding the magnet (1999). The MRI machine is a long cylinder, much like a standard MRI, but it contains a vertical gap in the center of the magnet that is approximately 58-cm wide. The surgical area is located in this vertical gap between the two halves of the magnet. This allows surgeons to perform surgical interventions on the patient while the patient remains in a stationary position throughout the procedure (2003). Patients can enter the magnet in one of two ways depending on tumor location and surgeon preference. In the standard position, the patient enters the magnet from the end, much like a bullet goes through a gun barrel. In this position, surgeons stand opposite each other during the surgery. This allows two surgeons to work at the same time. This docking position typically is used for brain tumor resections and brain biopsies (2003). Scan times of several minutes often are required to produce a diagnostic image with MRI. One way to reduce scan times is to increase the field strength, thereby boosting the signal available to produce the image. Another method to reduce scan times is to increase the rate of variations of the magnetic field gradients, as with the echoplanar imaging method. Rapid changing (pulsing) of the gradient magnetic field may induce voltages in any electrical conductor within the field. Possible conductors include the human body and biomedical implants, as well as devices used to monitor the patient during scanning. Burns have resulted when a loop is formed between the patient and the conductive leads to monitoring equipment within the gradient magnetic field ( 1996). Therefore, it is important to check all equipment to ensure that no loops are formed with the patient.   3. Explain how the adjustable parameters you have available on the MRI console generally affect the quality of your image.             Two populations of hydrogen protons exist in magnetic resonance imaging: free protons and bound protons. Bound protons do not contribute to normal MR signal because they resonate somewhat off the center frequency of water. A special pulse sequence called magnetization transfer contrast (MTC) was developed to compensate for this off-resonance limitation. A saturation transfer of bound protons occurs during MTC, enabling a transfer of energy to the free proton pool and thereby contributing to the overall MR signal (1996).             Bound hydrogen protons are not visualized in MR because of their broad bandwidth, which is slightly offset from the center frequency of the free proton pool, or water peak, in MR imaging. The broad bandwidth, combined with cross-relaxation and chemical exchange processes, contributes to the lack of visualization (1996).             The broad bandwidth of bound protons can be forced to contribute to the free proton pool signal by applying a presaturation pulse a few hundred hertz off the center frequency of the free proton pool or water peak. This off-resonance pulse is known as the MTC pulse. An off-resonance pulse implies that a frequency different from free hydrogen protons is utilized. Typical offset values of pulses range from 1000 Hz to 2500 Hz (1996).             Magnetization transfer contrast sequences usually require no additional hardware; typically, all that is required is a computer software package that allows the use of the special presaturation pulse. This pulse allows the magnetization induced in the bound proton pool to be transferred to that of the free proton pool. The MTC effect is best visualized in tissues with a lower water content, such as cartilage, muscle and brain parenchyma. Tissues that have a high water content demonstrate very little MTC effect ( 1996). Advances in computer hardware and software and the expansion of MRI have increased the use of 3-D imaging to display sectional anatomy ( 1993). A computer is used to control and orchestrate all scanner electronics in MRI such as transmission, signal reception, pulse timing, and signal delay time. The software written to control these channels is called a pulse sequence. The timing parameters inside the pulse sequence can be adjusted to produce various types of tissue contrast ( 2001), thus affecting the overall MRI image quality. The better the magnetic resonance imaging quality of the image, the better and bigger is the chance for detection of diseases or the accuracy of screening certain diseases. The advancement in technology which has moved imaging from beyond simple anatomical images to computer-generated 3-D images has helped a lot.   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) in the United Kingdom

1. Discuss the current guidelines which are relevant to the safe practice of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) in the United Kingdom. Si...