Research Articles Base: Globalization

Globalization and Information and Communication Technologies

Globalization and Information and Communication Technologies               Globalization is considered as the rapid increase in the cross-border economic, social and technological exchange. Guillen (2000) describe it as the process of leading to greater interdependence and mutual awareness among the economic, political as well as social units of the world. The said statement was supported by Rosenau (1999), by saying that it is the emergence of the changed structure of the world and was driven by the revolution of skill, explosion of organization as well as the everlasting flow of ideas, money, goods as well as people that is providing a long-standing territorial boundaries increasingly obsolete, therefore focuses in the process of fostering an expensive decentralization of the authority (cited in Oulo University Library 2003).             Globalization had been able to affect different industries and fields in the world such as economy, business, socialization, entertainment and more importantly education. Just like the field of business, education is also being affected by the current trends and developments in technology, primarily the ICT. ICT consists of the hardware, software, networks as well s media for collection, storage, processing, transmission and presentation of different information and other related services (The World Bank 2008). Just like different debates regarding how globalization can make the poor countries poorer, and rich countries richer, it can be said that the said phrase is applicable. Globalization together with ICT can contribute to different education goals that will furthermore help to reduce poverty in the world (Oulo University Library 2003). However, there are many questions regarding it, since there are different incidents of limited access of the said technology. The statement shows a difference between the developed and the developing countries. It shows that in order to become successful it will be important to apply ICT. The said perspective can be showed in the current global condition and information technology learning and knowledge of different countries in the world, particularly between the developed and developing countries (Oulo University Library 2003). Thus, it can be said that the statement that said that globalization is wounding those who don’t quickly enough grasp how to use it by leaving them ever further behind, but providing unprecedented benefits for those with the courage and willingness to grasp its potential for drive change. This is due to the fact that it can be seen in the education system and economic condition of those developing countries that are striving to apply ICT. It is important to consider that it is not the question about the desire to grasp the said knowledge, but it focuses on the ability of each and every individual and nation to have that kind of technology in terms of economical and social aspects. It is important to consider that one of the most important problems in the education industry in the world focuses on the access to the basic education, not to mention the access to the digital divide in most of the developing countries. There are about 113 million of children that are still out of school in the world, and 110 million of them are living in less developed countries (Oulo University Library 2003). This show that the application of new technologies and the presence of globalization did not extensively increase the access to the basic education, but it had helped to increase the gap between those rich or haves and the poor or have nots, regarding the access to the quality of education (Oulo University Library 2003). Thus it show that globalization during the age of ICT implies greater global inequality in income and wealth distribution (Togati 2006, p. 139). It can also be seen in the growing number of company and organizations that are implementing different ICT and other related technologies in managing their information that helped them in different aspects and activities such as decision-making, human resource management and customer relationship. There are different studies that show that application of ICT helped different organization to become feasible and gain competitive advantage in their respective market. Thus, it is important to consider that ICT is already a must in the business field. This shows the statement regarding the advantage of applying ICT, where in it can be observed that those successful companies in the global markets are applying their own computerized systems that helped them to analyze their entire performance and plans. In addition to that, it had also helped different organization that are considered as multinational companies to have a direct and real-time communication with its other branch or headquarters in different part of the globe. On the other hand, there is no doubt that ICT has a significant impact in each and every life of every person in the world, primarily those people who are somewhat dependent on different technologies, primarily the Internet. That is the reason why ICT has a great influence over the culture. ICT affect culture on organization and subcultural occasion, for example the way email has changed how people correspond in writing, thus people no longer rely as much on snail mail and fax machine because attaching files in email in quicker and simpler (Browing & Saetre 2008, p. 106). The said development had helped to create the email culture, where in people tend to communicate using the said technology. In addition to that, due to the fact that in cybernetic space, physical obstacles and temporal distance seem to disappear like magic, it had been seen as an effective way of promoting democratic values, facilitating a free circulation of people, ideas and material goods across national boundaries in different part of the world (Spariosu 2004, p. 37).  That is the reason why ICT had been considered as a great help in the field of marketing and business. Just like the common debate regarding globalization, ICT is also associated with the fact that it could help those already developed countries to become more developed, but on the other hand, it made those developing countries to be left behind, thus helping to increase the gap between the financial and social status of each and every country in the world.   References   Browning, L, Saetre, A S, Stephens, K & Somes, J O 2008, Information and Communication Technologies in Action: Linking Theory and Narratives of Practice, Routledge   De La Torre, J & Moxon, R 2001, ‘Introduction to the Symposium E-Commerce and Global Business: The Impact of the Information and Communication Technology Revolution on the Conduct of International Business’, Journal of International Business Studies, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 617 – 618   Freeman, C, Soete, L & Efendiogku, U 1995, ‘Diffusion and the Employment Effects of Information and Communication Technology’, International Labour Review, vol. 134, no. 4 – 5, pp. 587 – 589   ICT and Education 2008, The World Bank, viewed 31 October 2008, < http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTEDUCATION/0,,contentMDK:20264888~menuPK:617610~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:282386,00.html>   ICT, Globalization and Education 2003, Oulo University Library, viewed 31 October 2008, <http://herkules.oulu.fi/isbn9514272463/html/x464.html>   Khrishna, S & Madon, S 2004, The Digital Challenge: Information Technology in the Development Context, Ashgate Publishing Ltd.   Spariosu, M 2004, Global Intelligence and Human Development: Toward an Ecology of Global Learning, MIT Press   Togati, T D 2006, The New Economy and Macromedia Stability: A Neo-modern Perspective Drawing on the Complexity Approach and Keynesian Economics, Routledge   Wiley, S, Information Technology and Globalization, Center for Information Society Studies North Carolina State University, viewed 31 October 2008, < http://www.ncsu.edu/ciss/techglobal1.html> Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Globalization and Information and Communication Technologies

Globalization and Information and Communication Technologies Globalization is considered as the rapid increase in the cros...

Analyzing and evaluating the social, economic and political context of the case study towards the current situation of Uganda and its connection with ICT, globalization as well as development

The Women’s Information Resource Electronic Service (WIRES)   Table of Contents    TOC \o “1-3″ \h \z \u Introduction.. PAGEREF _Toc215480070 \h 2 Aims and Objectives. PAGEREF _Toc215480071 \h 3 Stakeholder Analysis. PAGEREF _Toc215480072 \h 3 Primary Stakeholders. PAGEREF _Toc215480073 \h 4 Secondary Stakeholders. PAGEREF _Toc215480074 \h 5 Conclusion.. PAGEREF _Toc215480075 \h 10 References. PAGEREF _Toc215480076 \h 12 Appendices. PAGEREF _Toc215480077 \h 13 Appendix A: The Women’s Information Resource Electronic Service (WIRES) Case Study  PAGEREF _Toc215480078 \h 13 Case Study Series on ICT-Enabled Development: The Women’s Information Resource Electronic Service (WIRES) PAGEREF _Toc215480079 \h 13     Introduction             The case study about the women’s information resource electronic service or WIRES is part of the case study series on ICT-enabled development of the International Institute for Communication and Development or IICD and bridges.org, that shows how ICT contributes to the development in Africa and help ground level initiatives to image the possibilities of application of ICT in order to overcome the different development obstacles in successful manner, thus contribute to the existing body of knowledge regarding the digital divide.             The case study focuses on the application of WIRES, an Internet-based Information Resource center that was designed in order to offer relevant information to the women in Uganda that holds the primary goal of empowering small-scale entrepreneurs. The project targeted 60 women in different rural areas and 30 women in Kampala, the largest urban center in Uganda. The said project was implemented by the Council for the Economic Empowerment for Women of Africa or CEEWA – Uganda Chapter, in cooperation with the Women of Uganda Network or WOUGNET. The WIRES is supported financially by the International Development Research Centre or IDRC, Hivos and the World Bank. The effort of CEEWA-Uganda began its effort towards ICT in 1999.             The project is creating telecentres and conducting training for women in Uganda in order to use ICT in order to access financial credit, marketing as well as acquiring business tips. The said project helps to raise awareness of common issues that are related with the agricultural community.   Aims and Objectives             The main objective of the project is to disseminate information to the women of Uganda, a place in Africa, where in women are not receiving fair and the same treatment as men in the community. The project or initiative focuses on focusing on the help of information in order to boost up the current position of women in the Uganda’s community, particularly regarding the issue about business and money.             On the other hand, the goal or aim of the case study is to show best practice example of how ICT has been successfully used by ground level initiatives in order to alleviate poverty. Thus, case studies can be considered as best too in examining what works best, what fails and the reason behind it.             This paper will focus on analyzing and evaluating the social, economic and political context of the case study towards the current situation of Uganda and its connection with ICT, globalization as well as development. It will analyze the different stakeholders that are involved or can be affected by the said change, and how it influenced their lives, both in positive and negative way.   Stakeholder Analysis             A stakeholder is an individual or organization that is either actively involved in the project or might be affected or influenced by the execution and completion of the project. It is important that a stakeholder may be positively or negatively affected by the project, that’s why the process of identifying them is considered as a vital aspect during the management of information technology initiatives or projects (Taylor 2004, p. 117).             The following are the stakeholders of the project:   Primary Stakeholders <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="square"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	CEEWA – 	a non-government and non-profit making organization or NGO of professional 	women with diverse backgrounds and experiences who have committed themselves 	to work towards empowering grass root women of Uganda. Its main mission is 	to promote the economic empowerment of women in the process of development 	via the process of increasing the level of access and control of women to 	the different economic resources such as credit, land and agricultural 	extension services (CEEWA 2006). CEEWA is the primary organization that 	implements and controls the entire operation of WIRES initiatives. 	</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	WOUGNET – 	a non-governmental organization that was initiated in May 2000 by different 	women’s organization in Uganda in order to develop the application of ICT 	among women as a tools to share information and address different issues in 	collective manner. CEEWA worked together with WOUGNET, due to the fact that 	the second has over 90 women organizations as a member, thus majority of its 	member are urban areas or district towns where there is some Internet access 	and few in rural areas (WOUGNET 2008). </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	Women in Uganda – 	the most important stakeholder in the WIRES 	initiative are the women in Uganda, who will undergo the project. This is 	due to the fact that they are the direct respondents or participants in the 	project, and they will be the primary basis whether the project will be 	successful or not. Furthermore, they are considered as the beneficiaries of 	the different information that can be offered by WIRES, and how it can be 	used in order to gain individual competitive advantage.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"></li> </ul> Secondary Stakeholders <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="square"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	IDRC 	– a Canadian Crown corporation that works in close collaboration with the 	different researchers from the developing world in their search for the 	means and approach in order to build healthier, more reasonable and more 	prosperous societies. It helps developing countries to use science as well 	as technology in order to find practical, long-term solutions to the 	different social, economic as well as environmental problems that the 	nations are facing (IDRC 2008). It helps all the primary stakeholders in 	terms of financial and monetary aspects. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	Hivos 	– Humanistic Institute for Cooperation with Developing Countries, a Dutch 	non-governmental organization hat is inspired by humanist values. It has 	relationship with different local organizations in many developing 	countries. The main objective of Hivos is to contribute to have a free, fair 	and sustainable world, where in the citizen, both men and women have equal 	access to the different resources and opportunities that can be used for 	individual and social development, thus will enable them to equally 	participate in the process of decision-making that can help to determine 	their life, their society as well as their future (Hivos 2004). Just like 	IDRC, Hivos also supports the project in financial aspect.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	World Bank 	– an internationally supported bank that is considered as an important 	source of financial as well as technical assistance to the different 	developing countries in the world (World Bank 2008). </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	Government 	– the government is considered as a secondary stakeholder, due to the fact 	it will not be directly connected with the project, however, the result of 	the project can be used in the policy making that are related to the status 	of women in the society as well as possible future projects and programs 	that will handle on the needs of women in the society in terms of 	information. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	Business 	– the business will also be affected in the 	said project, due to the fact that different players in the said field can 	cooperate in the project in order to promote about their business by 	offering different information regarding their business, and how those women 	can achieve success by offering different hints that can boost their 	confidence.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	Civil Societies – 	it is important to take note that the success of the entire society will 	depend greatly on performance of each and every individual within that 	society. If each and every woman will be informed, it can help to boost 	their confidence that can help them to become more productive, thus it can 	help to change the position of women in the society. Above all, women play 	an important role in the society.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	Families 	– the family will be affected directly by the influence of the project 	towards the women, this can affect in their financial situation as well as 	emotional and social aspect. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"></li> </ul> Critical Analysis Technological Determinism             The theory of technological determinism shows that we are now living in the new age of technology has never experienced before, as a result, the way people think, act as well as feel is being affected by new electronic media. The evolutions of communication have a direct impact over the existing society and the channels of communication are the primary cause of cultural change. Nothing exists that is not affected by the technology that is applied in the communication process (Huster 2000).             In the case of application and installation of ICT in Uganda for the benefits of the women, the said theory can be applied on how it can affect the lives of women, as well as the entire society in economic, social and political way.             Primarily, the said initiative can help each and every woman in the urban places in Uganda to improve their knowledge and learning on how to access and avail different resources that can help to improve the quality of their lives and family. In terms of economic, it can help women to have an independent financial source; this is due to the fact that women in Uganda are dependent to their husband in financial and monetary manner. This can help each and every family to have an extra income; therefore will help to increase the rate of two-income family. In terms of social aspect, it can help to improve the current position of women in the society because it can help to inform women regarding the different aspects that are connected to business and related subjects. More knowledgeable and improved citizens will mean more improvement and development for the place and the entire country.   Social Shaping             On the other hand, the theory about the social shaping or social determinism can also be applied in the said case. The said theory believes that it is the human race that shapes the technology and not the other way around. For example, a technologist would be simply a dreamer if he or she did not have the finance to put his idea into action and that finance can only come from the profit that accrued from the past ideas which the society has openly accepted (Bilton n.d.).             In the case study, it can be showed that the primary reason for the application of ICT in Uganda, as well as its focus on women is because, there have been different developed countries who have applied the said technology, and it had showed positive result. Furthermore, it had also helped different organizations and individual in other part of the globe, thus it had been proposed to be applied in the said place.             In addition, according to the social determinism theory, a product that has no particular use to the society or poorly designed or too expensive r even too far ahead of its time, will not sell (Bilton n.d.). This can be observed in many developing countries, particularly in Uganda. Prior to the WIRES initiatives, people are not aware to the importance of information as well as computer and Internet due to the fact that the cost of having Internet connection at home is high, and in the current economic condition of the country, people are not fully accepting the use and vitality of ICT towards their daily living and development.             In addition, the social status of women in the place regarding their financial dependency to their husband, they don’t tend to access to any resources that could help them to start a business. But due to the ongoing global perspective and changes in terms of women’s right and position in the society, it had helped different non-governmental organization to focus on the demand of Uganda women.             In that condition, the society will have shaped, whether accept or reject the technology that was initially shaped, designed and constructed by a technologist (Bilton n.d.). In the case, the project had been successful due to the support of other organizations and individuals.   Actor Network Theory             The actor-network theory focuses on the networks that engineers and scientists create in order to get their projects and program done, that emphasize on the fact that no one acts alone. The main difference between the first theories that have mentioned and this one is that it does not distinguish that much the relationship between human and non-human actors (Goguen 1998). This is due to the fact that the initiatives focus on the process of translation, where in the innovators focuses on creating a forum or called a central network where in the different actors will agree that, that specific network is worth building and defending. The project begins in the process of problematization, where in CEEWA and WOUGNET focuses on the different factors and the methods that were used in order to entrust the group of people that will represents the actors. The next moment focuses on the interessement, where in the two organization focuses on negotiating with the actors regarding their importance and role to the project. The next process is the enrollment, where in the actors’ start to be involved in the project, and the mobilization of allies that will determine that success and activeness of the enrollment support (Latour 2005).               In the case of implementing of WIRES in the women of Uganda, it can be observed that the officials and organizations, together with the participants are considered as the actor as well as a network that works together.   Conclusion             The main advantage of the case is that it had been able to show the economic, social and political importance of the initiatives towards the women of Uganda. In addition, the author had been able to show and include the different theories that are related and connected with the application of technology to a new environment and its social impact. On the other hand, the said project also follows the 8 habits of highly effective ICT-for-Development initiatives as a guideline; therefore, it gives the authorities the information of what to do in the long run.             On the other hand, based on the lesson learned part of the case, it had been said that one of the problems that was faced by the authorities was their lack of knowledge and skills regarding ICT. It is important to consider that the reason why the projects was implemented is to introduce and teach the importance and uses of ICT to the women in Uganda, in that case, the managers only knew basic skills during the preliminary stages of the initiative. It is important to know that, if the managers of the project don’t have that much knowledge regarding ICT, it will reflect to the perspective of the participants or it will affect their entire impression towards the initiative. That’s why it will be important to have the enough knowledge, in order to tackle the important details regarding the project such as how it will affect their lives, both in positive and negative way. At the same time, it will also important to show or provide different solutions or answer regarding the negative impact of the project.             Aside from that, the case study did not mention that, the project communicates with the family, particularly with the husband, regarding their initiative of empowering the women. This is very important because the family plays an important role in the success of failure of the project, because women are considered as more family-oriented compare to men. Thus, the support of the family, especially the husband is very important motivator for the women.       References   About Us: World Bank 2008, World Bank, viewed 25 November 2008, < http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTABOUTUS/0,,pagePK:50004410~piPK:36602~theSitePK:29708,00.html >   Bilton, J, Social Determinism, The UK Technology Education Centre, viewed 25 November 2008, <http://atschool.eduweb.co.uk/trinity/social.html>   Goguen, J 1998, Actor-Network Theory, Social Aspects of Technology and Science (October 30), viewed 25 November 2008, <http://www-cse.ucsd.edu/~goguen/courses/268D/5.html>   Hivos – a Short Introduction 2004, Hivos, viewed 25 November 2008, < http://www.hivos.nl/english/english/about_hivos/short_introduction > Huster, K 2000, Technological Determinism, The Marshall McLuhan Center on Global Communication, viewed 25 November 2008, < http://oak.cats.ohiou.edu/~kh380597/TD.htm>   International Development Research Centre (IDRC) 2008, IDRC, viewed 24 November 2008, <http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-8513-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html>   Latour, B 2005, Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory, Oxford University Press, Oxford   Taylor, J 2004, Managing Information Technology Projects: Applying Project Management Strategies to Software, Hardware, and Integration Initiatives, AMACOM Div American Management Association   Women and Entrepreneurship Development (WED): Programme – ICT Project 2006, CEEWA (June), viewed 25 November 2008, <http://www.ceewauganda.org/ceewa/annual_04.pdf>   Women of Uganda Network 2008, WOUGNET, viewed 25 November 2008, <http://www.wougnet.org/cms/index.php>         Appendices   Appendix A: The Women’s Information Resource Electronic Service (WIRES) Case Study   Case Study Series on ICT-Enabled Development: The Women’s Information Resource Electronic Service (WIRES) Submitted by Editor on 12 November, 2003 – 02:23. An initiative of IICD and bridges.org The bridges.org/IICD Case Study Series on ICT-Enabled Development sets out to illustrate how ICT contributes to development in Africa. The aim of this series is to help ground level initiatives imagine the possibilities of what can happen if they use ICT successfully to overcome development obstacles, and to contribute to the existing body of knowledge on the digital divide. I. Overview Initiative: The Women’s Information Resource Electronic Service (WIRES) is an Internet-based Information Resource Centre designed to provide relevant business information to women in Uganda with the goal of empowering small-scale entrepreneurs. WIRES provides online information on animal rearing, crop growing, trade, and women’s issues, and each subject area covers best practices, market prices, support organisations, and the type of support they give. Initially a pilot project, WIRES started by opening telecentres in three sub counties within Uganda. Implemented by: The Council for the Economic Empowerment for Women of Africa (CEEWA) – Uganda Chapter, which is affiliated with the Women of Uganda Network (WOUGNET). WOUGNET is a non-profit organisation with a mission to help women use information and communication technologies (ICT) as a tool to share information and address issues collectively. Funding or financial model: CEEWA is a non-profit organisation and the WIRES programme is supported by funders including the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Hivos, and the World Bank. The WIRES project is currently supported solely by donor funding, but CEEWA-Uganda is researching how to make its telecentres sustainable. Timeframe: CEEWA-Uganda was formed in 1995, and its efforts in ICT and entrepreneurship began in 1999. Local context: Approximately 35% of the population in Uganda live under the poverty line with 82% of the labour force working in agriculture (CIA World Factbook, 2002). This heavy reliance on farming underscores the predominantly agricultural nature of the economy. In rural Uganda, it is primarily women who provide for households, either by doing most of the farming or starting small local businesses. Despite this role, men, not women, usually have access to credit and local business exchanges. In terms of access to ICT, the vast majority of those with Internet access live in urban areas, and connectivity is prohibitively expensive. Typically, a dial-up connection costs per month for email only, and email plus Internet access costs per month. The minimum bandwidth leased line will cost 0 to set up, with an entry-level service accommodating a connection for ten workstations at 0 per month. Telephone line rates are .15 per minute. The development problem/obstacle addressed: Women in rural Uganda face many difficulties in starting local businesses: they must obtain credit through their husbands, they do not have time to network locally in order to sell goods, and they are not taught basic business skills. ICT offers an effective tool to disseminate information and allow women to connect, but access to ICT is limited, and the costs of connecting to the Internet are prohibitively high for the typical woman in rural Uganda. How ICT is used to overcome the problem: The WIRES initiative is creating telecentres and training women in Uganda to use ICT for accessing financial credit, marketing, and getting business tips. CEEWA-Uganda employs local people to manage the telecentres and provides computer-training courses on CD-ROM. So far women have been using the telecentres primarily to communicate with other entrepreneurs, which is helping to raise awareness of common issues among the agricultural community. They are learning about best practices and how to record accounting information for their local businesses. Next steps: CEEWA-Uganda plans to expand its WIRES programme and create additional telecentres primarily in rural areas. Because men felt left out and have also been demanding ICT training, it will budget for training for males in the community as well. In addition, CEEWA-Uganda wants to expand its programme to show women how to use ICT in their daily lives as well as their businesses. Geographical area targeted: The WIRES initiative targeted 60 women in rural areas and 30 women in Kampala (Uganda’s largest urban centre) in its original project. Namely, these sub counties were Nabweru in Wakiso District, Buwama in Mpigi and Nakawa Division in Kampala District.     II. Gauging Real Impact This section considers whether and how the initiative has made a Real Impact at the ground level by looking through the lens of basic best practice guidelines for successful initiatives. The bridges.org 8 Habits of Highly Effective ICT-Enabled Development Initiatives are used here as a framework to highlight what the initiative has done well.   The 8 Habits of Highly Effective ICT-for-Development Initiatives 1. Implement and disseminate best practice CEEWA-Uganda is partnering with local organisations such as the Rural Women Information Network of Uganda ( RWIN-U) to bring its lessons to more rural areas, especially ones that it cannot reach with its telecentre projects. It shares best practices through seminars, workshops, and regular reports to its development partners. 2. Ensure ownership, get local buy-in, find a champion The CEEWA-Uganda initiative started months before the project implementation began, by hosting meetings with local leaders and community members. CEEWA-Uganda made a priority of forming local management committees and hiring local people to manage telecentres. 3. Do needs assessment CEEWA-Uganda has institutionalised needs assessments. It performed a baseline study to select the 90 women who were to participate in the project, to establish the women’s information and training needs, as well as to understand what non-technology factors would inhibit their success. The implementation phase directly followed from the findings of the needs assessment, concentrating on implementing ICT for marketing, teaching business skills, and access to credit, which were all specific needs identified beforehand. 4. Set concrete goals and take small achievable steps CEEWA-Uganda’s efforts in ICT for development were strictly phased: (1) needs assessment, (2) implementation, and (3) monitoring and reporting. The necessary funding and timing was determined beforehand, and the study was limited to 90 women as a study group. After demonstrating success and learning from the initial project, CEEWA-Uganda is planning the next steps. 5. Critically evaluate efforts, report back to clients and supporters, and adapt as needed CEEWA-Uganda formally monitored the project every two months, and produced a report at the end of every six months. Some of these reports indicated that many of the women did not appreciate information as a resource; they wanted money, not information. CEEWA-Uganda therefore had to teach women how to use the information both to improve the effectiveness of their local businesses as well as to find credit. CEEWA-Uganda also had to schedule activities and meetings in conversation with the targeted women, many of whom could not attend during normal business hours due to family responsibilities. 6. Address key external challenges Literacy and education were key obstacles to women’s success in using the telecentres. CEEWA-Uganda has begun to provide information in local languages and plans to focus on these issues in its future projects. Another challenge arose because some of the targeted women lived too far from the telecentres and could come to the telecentre on a daily basis. Lacking daily interaction, many women did not become completely comfortable with using computer technology. CEEWA-Uganda will address this problem directly in future implementations.   7. Make it sustainable The WIRES project is currently supported solely by donor funding, but CEEWA-Uganda is researching how to make its telecentres sustainable. They are aware that in the absence of funding, telecentres must find profitable business opportunities that serve real community needs such as business and entrepreneurship training, computer and Internet training, and business facilities and administration. 8. Involve groups that are traditionally excluded on the basis of gender, race, religion or age. CEEWA-Uganda targets its activities toward women. III. Lessons Learned We invited Goretti Zavuga, who directs CEEWA-Uganda’s efforts in ICT and entrepreneurship, to share her views on the WIRES project’s greatest success, the challenges faced, key constraints and dependencies that affect the project, opportunities for future improvement, and other lessons learned. This is what she said: “It is crucial that our managers are trained in ICT. When I began this project, my skills in ICT were still basic, and there was no provision for capacity building. I learned on the job, although it was very costly to make mistakes. One example of why this is important was during a contract negotiation. We found that networking consultants wanted to take lots of money for simple jobs. Once I understood what these jobs really entailed, I was in a much more powerful position to bargain. In implementing projects on the ground, I have learned that you have to be patient with the audience. This often depends on age: the youth are quick to learn and the elderly are much slower. You must also involve the people in their own destiny as it relates to information. You must have a participatory approach, even in your baseline study. The local people must own the ideas, and in order for that to happen, you must explain and come to a level at which they can understand you. They cannot consider you elite women from the city; they must see you as partners in the development process.” IV. The Story This section presents a narrative description of the initiative that highlights why this use of ICT for development is particularly interesting. Rural Uganda is a difficult place for women. Many women are the primary providers for households, either responsible for doing much of the agriculture work, or running a small business. Despite this role as providers, men, not women, usually have access to credit and local business exchanges. The Uganda chapter of the Council for the Economic Empowerment for Women of Africa (CEEWA) tries to rectify this problem and help women find the financial resources they need directly. In addition, as part of its Women’s Information Resource Electronic Service (WIRES) initiative, CEEWA-Uganda recently brought information and communications technologies (ICTs) directly to the villages by building local telecentres. Women business owners in the small rural town of Nabweru, where one of CEEWA-Uganda’s telecentres is located, however, wanted money, not the Internet. CEEWA-Uganda believed that empowering women with ICT would provide them access to credit in addition to dramatically improving the scope and method of their business. Of course, rural women took some convincing. Before building the telecentre, Goretti Zavuga, who leads CEEWA-Uganda’s ICT implementation in rural areas, held regular town meetings to get women involved and better understand local business problems. In addition to accessing credit, women had trouble finding time to network, and often needed to be coached in basic business skills. Incorporating these needs and women’s unique schedules into the telecentre, CEEWA-Uganda began construction of its telecentre. Charcoal business owner Margaret Nabanja and chicken feed supplier Samailie Byabagambi now testify to what ICT can do for rural businesses. After training these women business owners to use computers and the Internet, they were able to find new sources of credit and change their entire way of doing business. They now order supplies using the phone and access market price information over the Internet. They have both been able to expand their businesses and are so sold on technology that they own mobile phones. Nabanja and Byabagambi, who had never touched a computer before, are now teaching their fellow villagers how to surf the Internet. Men felt a little left out though, with all this attention being paid to their wives. In future WIRES projects, WIRES will also budget for training rural men and allowing them to use the telecentres. In addition, CEEWA-Uganda plans to develop training programs to help women use ICT to enhance their daily lives as well as their businesses.       Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Analyzing and evaluating the social, economic and political context of the case study towards the current situation of Uganda and its connection with ICT, globalization as well as development

The Women’s Information Resource Electronic Service (WIRES) Table of Contents TOC \o “1-3″ \h \z \u Introduction .. PAGEREF _...

Globalization, Inequality and Poverty Nexus

Globalization – Inequality – Poverty Nexus Overview  In this essay I will discuss the relationships between globalization and inequality, globalization and poverty and how the growth channel impacts openness, growth-inequality relationship and inequality-poverty-link. This essay will also discuss other channels in the globalization-inequality-poverty nexus like including the factor mobility, technological progress and diffusion, how the information flows, the role of institutions and the volatility and vulnerability. While discussing the above, this essay will also answer different important issues, like whether the actual distribution of wealth is fair. It will also tackle the disadvantages of globalization and who bears the most costs and if variations of inequality between countries and with in countries, are related to globalization. Finally, this essay will answer the question of why are we still arguing about whether globalization is good or bad or the big debate between the pro-globalization and the skeptics. Above all, this essay will discuss how the developing countries have controlled globalization and its adverse impacts.    Introduction Globalization is the interconnectedness, in the perspective of international economy; it is the increase in volume and value of international trade and financial transactions. It is the interaction of people, culture, and faster communication, flow of goods, services and labor across the boarder, thus linking world economies together through international markets. Where as Inequality is the lack of equality or fair treatment in the sharing of wealth, distribution of economic assets and income, between different groups in a society.  While poverty is the condition of being extremely poor, lack of something or when the quality of something is extremely low: Globalization gives countries that are involved new opportunities to move faster, for growth and development, however, on the one hand, globalization also poses a difficult job to, and imposes limits on policymakers in the control of national, regional and global economic systems (Alastair & Hulme 2007). While one cannot fail to recognize the benefits of globalization, the question is still posed as to whether the actual distribution of these gains are fair, in the sense of how the benefits are being shared  equally between those who have and have not or if this force is really hurting some and rewarding the rest (Mandle 2003) Globalization has brought costs and risks that are significant for the delicate developing economies and the third or developing countries. This is mostly associated with the down side of globalization in the times of global financial and economic crises (Stiglitz 1998). As noted by Stiglitz, in times of crises the costs are borne overwhelmingly by the developing countries who are vulnerable to shocks, therefore, when its time for boom the benefits are not shared widely and equally with in the global community (Stiglitz 1998). As noted by OECD (2001), there is the fear that globalization has bypassed and is hurting the poor, and as what Nissankey & Thorbecke (2006) stated that all this point towards to the increasing inequality in the world income distribution, but also assert that the lack of convergence in the involved national economies and regions as the waves of globalization sweeps through,  and thus these two  assert that inequality acts as a sieve of growth and poverty. Sklair (1999) and Woods (1998) discussed competing conceptions in Nissanke, & Thorbecke (2006). They assert that the link between globalization-inequality and poverty is intense, and further still, that globalization is expected to reduce poverty through faster growth in more integrated economies, but the level of this integration on the side of developing world leaves less to admire.   Relationship Between Globalization And Inequality For that fact, economic growth has been given a priority in measuring poverty (OECD 2001).Sometimes it’s not the case; the negative links of growth and inequality have been left out largely by policy makers. These negative links are the traditional common factors causing inequality. Cornia (2000) explained that these factors such as land concentration, inequality in education and urban bias can be counteracted by things like land reform, providing education equally and this will reduce inequality. Also to note, the debate that world inequality is much more driven by between countries than within countries and vice versa. Globalization has different implications, the liberal argument is that increases in the world inequality above moderate levels may limit world demand and there by world economic growth, thus producing a vicious circle of rising world inequality and lower world growth. This will result in a high marginal propensity to import sophisticated goods and services from rich countries by developing countries, there by widening income inequality (Held & Kaya 2007).                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 In addition, the relationship between openness-growth and inequality, this openness through liberalization of trade  and investment have been  supported worldwide for the growth that come with it, this is associated with many theories like the famous comparative advantage, where the main growth enhancing effects are assumed to filter through as noted by Kaplinsky (2005). According to World Bank (2002), openness to growth is presumed to be achieved in three sub channels, which are exports, capital inflows and imports. In this, exports are encouraged through trade liberalization, which in turn will benefit export industries and thus add to the total GDP, but the argument here is if exports themselves influence growth  or vice versa (Nissanke and Stein 2003). Furthermore, when a country does import substitution in favor of trade liberalization which is encouraged by openness-to growth; it is likely to hurt the previously protected home industries in a short run. In addition, its fiscal revenues will fall due to lower in tariffs, though because of competition it is likely to achieve some growth due to proper allocation of resources which these resources in a developing country are not properly allocated or equally distributed thus it hard to achieve growth (Nissanke and Stein 2003). Further more, these poor countries moreover have no say with the current account liberalization as it was imposed on them by World Bank and IMF as a conditionality for financial assistance so as these poor countries face the speculative attacks on their currency, as was the example of East Asia, can devastate the economy especially these vulnerable ones (Mandle 2003). Also to note, is the impact of foreign direct investment (FDI), in here it is assumed that FDI will take on the form of building new factories and creating jobs, rather than merger and acquisition (Mandle 2003). If the above is true then, most of the capital flows from the transnational corporations is directly injected to the factories producing new products (Dollar & Kraay 2001a, 2001b). However this sometimes is not the case, apart from the high price of foregoing corporate tax a developing country has to do, the transfer of technology and know-how assumed to accompany the FDI is not automatic. And as Sachs and Warner (1995) put it this short term capital flows contribute to the increased vulnerability to external shocks of the recipient developing country. Thus it is difficult to establish a strong positive causal relationship between financial globalization and economic growth, Sachs and Warner.   Other Channels In The Globalization-Inequality-Poverty Nexus The other channel in the globalization-inequality-poverty nexus is the shift in relative product prices, which induces income distribution, in the process of opening up of trade (Bhargava 2006). Besides this, globalization influence or affect poverty straight away through relative price changes in factor markets and goods markets (Ravallion 2004). Another important factor to consider regarding the relationship of globalization, inequality and poverty is the impact of globalization towards the workers. This is because there is an ongoing debate about how globalization makes the rich, richer and the poor, poorer. One of the major disadvantages of globalization towards the workers is the low wages or labor costs. This can be connected on the absolute advantage theory or the international trade history which asserts individuals or nations trade with accordance to their superior productivity in a specific industry. With accordance to the said theory, nations must produce, at the same time, export different goods which they posses an absolute advantage, as well as import from other nations which posses an absolute advantage (Economic Professor n.d.). As of now, the global environment is facing major changes in terms of competition, that is, whoever country that can manufactures product in better and faster manner will win. As a result of globalization, each and every country in the world is competing in order to get to the finish line, and as of now, the most advantaged country in terms of cheaper labor cost is China, which enables the country to be one of the most favorite destinations of different companies in the world, especially now, during the massive impact of global financial crisis. According to the Peoples Daily Online (2007), in Europe, hourly rate of individual worker is US, while US$ in the US, but it can be offered by US in China. Therefore, 1 hour of operation in Europe will be equivalent to 30 hours in China. Thus, the issue about the negative impact of outsourcing will also be noted. Due to the low labor cost in China, companies in Europe and the US will tend to focus in investing in China, thus, Bhagwati (2004) explained that labor unions in different countries will fear that their trade with the poor countries with low wages can drive down the real wages of their own workers, thus result to paupers in their midst (p. 122). Meaning, globalization can also drive disadvantage on the part of rich countries, because employees from America will lose their job, while those workers in India will gain (Bardhan n.d.). Another important factor to consider is the inequality in wage which focuses on the trade-induced skill-biased technical progress. According to Wood and Theonig & Verdier (2003) there are some developing countries and some rich countries who are facing competition in terms of importing cheap unskilled labor-intensive products from the poorer countries, that may adopt skill-biased defensive innovations. The said subject is supported by the study of Attanasia, Goldberg & Pavcnik (2004) about the increase in demand for skilled workers in Colombia, shows that cheaper imports of different machines, office equipment and other capital goods that are complementary or direct connected with the skilled labor in different developing countries, offer the vehicle of skill biased technical change. Thus, firms that import machineries are more likely to employ a higher share of white-collar workers, than those firms that do not import the said inputs. As a result, it can be said that wage inequality is compatible or linked with a rise in absolute wage rate or wage income. Therefore, those workers in poor country with comparative advantage in products intensive in unskilled labor should benefit from trade liberalization (Bardhan n.d.).   On the other hand, globalization can also affect different industries of different countries because of global trade. For example, shoe industry in the Philippines is being affected by imported products from China and Korea which come in low price; as a result, it pushes industries, particularly those small players to close, therefore affecting the workers (Bardhan n.d.). The result, the discrepancies between the 20% of the world’s population who live in developed countries, and the 20% in the third world countries was 30:1 by 1960 and grow to 74:1 by 1997 (UNDP 1999). In connection, according to the United Nations Development Report, the world poorest 2.5 billion people or more or less 45% of the entire population have collective income which is more or less equal to the wealth of the top 225 riches billionaires in the world (Ukpere & Slabbert 2007, p. 5). As a result, during 1990s, the 20% of the riches people in the world enjoyed about 86% of the global GDP, while the 20% poorest own less than 1%. While, the income of the 10% of the global households is more than 80 times the purchasing power of the 10% poorest (Amin 2004, p. 1). This situation shows the product of rich becoming richer and the poor becoming poorer; an important trend which affects developed countries but negatively affect the developing nations, focusing primarily on the Sub-Saharan Africa, East and South Asia and Latin America (Ukpere & Slabbert 2009).             The factors of income inequality can result to the form of increasing early mortality diseases, including malnutrition, prostitution, child labor, displacement and forced migration, the violence of social breakdown, state social control as well as fractional war, acute risk and uncertainty, environmental degradation and vulnerability, together with the existential material security (Amin, 2004, p. 1). In connection, it shows the inequalities in terms of health indicators. According to the World Development Report in 2006, the world including West Asia and North Africa, East Asia (excluding China and Japan), South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa – was below the world average, however, high rates of growth in life expectancy in the first three of these areas in the next 20 years was inequality-reduces globally, at the same time, the decline of life expectancy in sub-Saharan Africa in the 1990’s thus, increases the said inequality by stretching the bottom tail of the distribution. In 2000, only South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa were still below the world average. While health indicators are in general worse, when the incomes are low, differences in the income growth enables to explain the variation in improvements of life expectancy. Thus, major determinants mortality decline are clean water, systems of public health, sanitation and basic sanitary, knowledge, education of women. Thus, globalization failed in the aspect of health knowledge, drugs and technology. This is because, even with globalization, 10.5 million die different preventable deaths in poor countries; it is preventable because they would have leave, if they belong in the rich countries (Bardhan n.d.). This is happening due to the fact the South Africa has a great rate of poverty. As a matter of fact, in South Africa, more or less 20 million people are living on average, on les than R144 or about per month, 40% of the entire poor population are female and lives in the rural areas; 60% of female headed-households are poor compare with 31% of male headed-households; 2 out of 3 children live in poverty; and there were about 3.1 million jobless African families during 1999, showing a great increase compare with 1.9 million in 1995. Therefore, it can be said that the rate will be increasing now, due to the global financial crisis. In addition, 38% of the working populations are unemployed, which put Africa as one of the most uneven societies in the globe (Adams 2006).             There are several studies, with the support of qualitative and quantitative reports from international and local organization, which shows that globalization had been able to help most of developing countries, particularly India and China. The main problem here is that not all of the poor countries are being benefited by the said changes, several studies explains and shows that globalization is connected to inequalities in the local settings and even in the relationship between the countries. The said inequalities focus on the access of the citizens towards education, health and employment. Thus, result to a universal problem, which is poverty. References Adams, M 2006, The relationship between globalization, internationalization and unemployment, unpublished article prepared for CPUT, Cape Town Alastair, G & Hulme, D 2007,  Challenging Global Inequality; Development Theory and Practice In the 21ST Century, Palgrave Macmillan Amin, A 2004, Regulating economic globalization, paper presented at ESRC-SSRC Workshop, St Hugh’s College, Oxford University, Oxford Antonelli, C 1991, The international Diffusion of Advanced Telecommunication: Opportunities for developing countries, OECD, Paris Bardhan, P, Globalization, Inequality, and Poverty: An Overview, viewed 8 May 2009, < http://emlab.berkeley.edu/users/webfac/bardhan/papers/BardhanGlobalOverview.pdf> Bauman Z 1998, Globalisation: The human consequences, Cambridge polity Bhagwati, J. (2004). In Defense of Globalization. New York: Oxford University Press Bhalla 1998, Globalization Growth and Marginilization, Macmillan Press Bhargava, V 2001, Global Issues for Global Citizens: An Introduction to Key Development Challenges, The World Bank, Washington Khor, M 2001, Rethinking Globalization: Critical Issues and Policy Mandle, J R 2003, Globalization and the Poor, Cambridge University Press OECD 2001, The New Economy: Beyond the Hype,  The OECD Growth Project Ukpere, W I & Slabbert, AD 2007, Is socialism actually dead and buried?, World Journal of Organisational Dynamics, vol. 1 no.1, pp.3-7 Ukpere, W & Slabbert, A 2009, A Relationship Between Current Globalization, Unemployment, Inequality and Poverty, vol. 36, no. ½, pp. 37 – 46 UNDP , Human Development Report, Oxford University Press, New York, NY,       Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Globalization, Inequality and Poverty Nexus

Globalization – Inequality – Poverty Nexus Overview In this essay I will discuss the relationships between globalization and inequalit...

Does Globalization Require a New Type of Social Theory?

Does Globalization Require a New Type of Social Theory?   Introduction   Contemporary globalization and social theories help to offer useful tools in order to understand the processes of organizing in an increasingly interconnected world (Grushna 2008). Thus, in the past, experts believed that social sciences have a more vital role to play in the process of understanding the environmental crisis. However, on the other hand, experts believe that in some instances, social sciences are not equipped to play the said imaginative and practical role without radical re-think of the inherited assumptions (Redclift & Benton 1994, p. 2).             Thus, as McNall & Agger noted, there is no irrefutable mode of social conceiving and taking forward independently of what is to be theorized. Devotion in the social sciences to a mode of theory that was proposed to apply equally at different levels of modernization, rationalization and organization must impound the capability to grasp the nature and scope of present changes. As a result, it calls for reconceptualizing the social change-social theory nexus by recognizing that saying goodbye to the standard social theory is not to propose that a quasi-anarchical multiplicity of theoretical modes should reinstate those views. As an alternative, the opportunity, in principle, that holding on to a traditional mode of theory might stop us from distinguishing the key changes and transformations that are ought to be cause for concern (McNall & Agger 1993, p. 300). Globalization and Social Theories               Globalization varies in different aspects. In terms of definition, globality allocates something distinguishing and vital that other vocabulary of social analysis does not capture; chronologically, globalization has mostly extended since the third quarter of the 20th century; in terms of causes, globalization has resulted from structuration process, in which forces of rationalism, capitalism, technological innovation and regulatory facilitation have figured centrally; in social change, globalization has brought outstanding change within the structures of production, governance, community and knowledge; in impacts, modern globalization has, next to some advantages, also shows aspects that are connected in various ways challenge and weaken human security, social equity and democracy; and in terms of policy responses, a programme of determined reform can counteract many possible harms, and help boost many possible gains of globalization (Scholte 2000, p. 315).             Thus, the said factors have great impact for the social thoughts and different practices. Regarding the social analysis, contemporary globalization has rendered methodological territorialism obsolete. Thus, people can no longer understand and grasp the world geography in terms of territorial spaces only, and reorientation in this subject will also changes the way people appreciate and comprehend the other dimensions of the social relations which include culture, ecology, economics, politics and psychology. As a result, globalization requires people to significantly rethink about the social theory. Therefore, it can be said that globalization has brought shifts and changes within rather than substitutions for underlying social structures. Furthermore, there is little sign that expanding supraterritoriality is in predictable future which takes us towards the post-capitalist, post-bureaucratic, post-communitarian, post-rationalist social order (Scholte 2000, p. 315).             The said scalar dynamic that has extensive global manifestations is also connected to the relationship between nations and states, and how these forces can also be taken advantage by nation-states with connection to the minorities, by posturing global capitalism as more real than the risk of its own hegemonic strategies. The said new global cultural economy has to be recognized as a multifaceted, overlapping, disjunctive order. Thus, it cannot be understood by using the existing center-periphery models and it is not vulnerable or at risk to the simple models of push and pull or even of surpluses and deficits of consumers and producers (Appadurai n.d.).             Even the most composite and flexible theories about the global development that have emerged of the Marxist tradition are insufficiently unusual, and they have not come to terms with what Lash & Urry (1987) have lately called  as the ‘disorganized capitalism’. Thus, the complication of the current global economy has something to do with definite primary disjuncture between the economy, culture and politics (Appadurai n.d.).             The discussion of the global economy and the different advantages and disadvantages does not touch on the issues about the personal lives of the people during the age of globalization. As a result, the said situation is a task for social theory and one that many during the past decade have taken on. Different authors and experts are debating regarding the need to change social theories. According to the neo-Marxist world system theory of Wallerstein (1990), the economic policies of globalization as fitting into what he sees as a capitalist system in order to exploit weaker nations and then keep them in a subordinated position. Thus, he argues that culture is considered as the ideological battleground between globalization and non-capitalist alternatives. However, the said theory was attack by Boyne (1990) because he believes that Wallerstein’s theory has a limited and on-dimensional view regarding the culture, which shows how deterministic his thinking is. Furthermore, Smith (1990) strong argues against the idea that there will be a global culture that was created by the globalization process because he does not believe that culture that appropriated from the media can substitute for the culture experience that people derive from their belonging to groups, whether there be local, ethnic or national. The said idea was agued by Robertson (1992) which focuses on the idea that the emergence of material structures which make the world more interconnected, are connected to, but not the cases of the emergence of a consciousness of the oneness or even unicity of the world. The author also focuses on the vital role for the global media in the process of raising the awareness of the progressively more interconnected world (McAnany 2002).             All of the said theory was argued and supplemented by Giddens (2000) on his theory of modern consciousness which talk about different ways that different forces or globalization has changed the modern life. However, Giddens (2000) stated that the process will not be easy. According to him, the battleground of the 21st century will ditch fundamentalism next to international acceptance. In a globalizing world, where in information and images are regularly broadcasted across the world, people are all regularly in contact with others who think in a different way, and live differently, from ourselves. Cosmopolitans receive and hold this cultural complication. Different fundamentalists find it worrying and hazardous. Thus, it is important to hope that an international outlook will win out (McAnany 2002). Therefore, Giddens had been able to focus on media as vital agents of change which affect everyone; however, it needs to be considered that Giddens speaks only from the perspective of West and middle class (McAnany 2002).             On the other hand, Tomlinson also write two important studies which try to theorized globalization. Cultural Imperialism (1991) was considered as a sharp critique of the cultural imperialism thesis which focus or emphasis towards the work of Herber Schiller. Tomlinson (1991) tries to define and outline his position regarding the impact of Western media on the consciousness of people; however he pertains on the modern world of the World and does not focus regarding what is happening in other parts of the globe. The second book, Globalization and Culture (1999), he begins with the process of defining the culture, which he believe that culture is the mundane practices which openly contribute to the ongoing life-narratives of the people. Aside from that, the author also focus on the different stores by which people, regularly understand and construe the existence of people, or what Heidegger calls the throwness of the human situation (p. 20). This means that even though the media are important, they are not the only factor or aspect which pressures or affects the lives of people. Here and in his earlier book it becomes obvious and apparent that there can not be an understandable and lucid definition of impact of media and that consequently no experimental result can, in some logic, be observed. Furthermore, the author also focuses on the idea of global modernity, which pertains on the concept that appears to have a great connection with the idea of Giddens (McAnany 2002).             However, the main problem is that even though the author disapproved of the cultural imperialism proponents because of their deficiency or lack of experimental data in order to show different ideological impacts. As a result, the author suggests and recommends no evidence from the real world in order to strengthen the claims regarding the modern consciousness and how it is created in the globalizing world. However, even though most of the researchers had been able to offer some vital empirical information about the spread of Western media in some parts of the globe, however the influence of the said media on the audience is still left about the abstract alone (McAnany 2002).             To conclude, in terms of globalization and culture, the organization of the individual as higher to the powerful compare to the influence of media, thus it is being affected by the ongoing consciousness of the people towards the oneness or unicity of the world (McAnany 2002).       Conclusion             Based on the information that have been gathered and discussed in this paper, it can be said that there is a great need for new social theories due to globalization. This is because globalization had affected almost every aspect of individual lives including culture and tradition, which is considered as an important factor is social theories. Furthermore, globalization had been able to overlap some of the past social theories which include the geographic factors. Because globalization had been able to connect different nations in the world, and with the further help of technology, particularly the Internet, it can be said that people are no longer separated by space or geographic factor.    Another important factor to consider is the ongoing changes and mixtures of cultures and traditions because of interconnections of different countries.     References   Appadurai, A, Disjuncture and Differences in the Global Cultural Economy, viewed 9 May 2009, <http://www.intcul.tohoku.ac.jp/~holden/MediatedSociety/Readings/2003_04/Appadurai.html>   Grushina, S V 2008, ‘Globalization and Social Theory: Relevant Perspectives for Understanding Processes of Organizing in an Interconnected World’ Paper presented at the annual meeting of the NCA 94th Annual Convention, TBA, San Diego, CA Online <PDF>. 2009-02-02,  <http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p257873_index.html>   McAnany, E G 2002, ’3. Social theories of globalization: from culture to consciousness.(Globalization and the media: the debate continues)’ Communication Research Trends. Centre for the Study of Communication and Culture, viewed 9 May 2009 from HighBeam Research: http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-130975421.html   McNall, S G, Agger, B, Howe, G & Wilson, J 1993, Current Perspective in Social Theory, Emerald Group Publishing   Redclift, M & Benton, T (eds) 1994, Social Theory and the Global Environment, Routledge, New York   Scholte, J A 2000, Globalization: A Critical Introduction, Palgrave Macmillan Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Does Globalization Require a New Type of Social Theory?

Does Globalization Require a New Type of Social Theory? Introduction Contemporary globalization and social theories help to offer...