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Vocational Teaching Personnel For Individuals With Intellectual Disability Term Paper

Vocational Teaching Personnel for Individuals with Intellectual Disability    Vocational teaching  is increasing  worldwide for individuals with intellectual disability.  Various governments are implementing laws for accessing educational facilities to students with intellectual disability.  There are even students who moved out from special schools and moved in the regular teaching settings in  the classrooms with normal students.  In this connection, post-secondary education and vocational training for mental disabled students are being provided  to ensure reasonable adjustments  among students  into the curriculum and teaching methods in order to accommodate the learning needs of students with disabilities, wherever possible. There are also some vocational training centers that cater specifically to people with disabilities, providing the skills necessary to work in integrated settings,  a good example of this type is Dale Rogers Training Center in Oklahoma City. Furthermore, many people with developmental disabilities live in the general community, either with family members, in supervised-group homes or in their own homes .  They are given assistance by a support worker  or vocational teaching personnel on how lives a regular living  with budgeting, shopping or paying bills. At the same time, they are also given  assistance  on how to  deal with household tasks, such as cooking and cleaning, and personal care  like showering, dressing and the administration of  their medication. The  requirement for full 24-hour support is usually associated with difficulties recognizing safety issues on  fire emergency  or using a telephone for people with potentially dangerous medical conditions, and  unable to manage their conditions without assistance. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_disability) Moreover, in the United States, there are vocational teaching personnel who  are popularly known as Direct Support Professional (DSP).  The DSP assists individuals with mental disability to communicate with  their needs, self-expression and their plans and goals in life. The support workers also provide assistance to these people in how to  undertake new community services such as education, how to act properly with other people,  how to  interrelate properly and appropriately with  community norms and  how to expand their network of friends in the community.  Most programs at-home and community support are designed with the objective of increasing the individual’s independence, despite the fact that majority of them are being recognized  as not able to achieve full independence in some areas of daily their  everyday life.  Another support center is the Austin State Supported Living Center in Austin, Texas.  This is a residential  accommodation type of  vocational center for the mental disabled individuals.  These support homes have  24-hour staff and it has up to 15 residents. The wide spread of this type of support is gradually decreasing, however, as residential accommodation is replaced by at-home and community support, which can offer increased choice and self-determination for individuals. Some U.S. states still provide institutional care, such as the Texas State Schools. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_disability) Subsequently,  employment support is also given to the individuals with intellectual disability.  There is an integrated-based  employment  program for them in the community.  This program teaches them how to prepare themselves for the future employment that they may undertake.  It also increases their skills potentials through a one-to-one small group support on-the-job training.  In this on the job training program, they are taught on how  to deal with an employer or a bullying colleague in a workplace, as well as the complete application assistance for the job.  This condition of employment opportunities for them is separated business services.  But, this is also designed for these individuals to transform their teaching work skills into integrated employment. The types of jobs that included in the  segregated business are  mailing and packaging services, cleaning, gardening and landscaping, timberwork, metal fabrication, farming and sewing.  In this aspect, workers with developmental insufficiencies are being paid less than the normal work force in any industry. However, at this time and age, it is gradually changing with government initiatives, the enforcement of anti-discrimination legislation and changes in perceptions of capability in the general community.  In the United States, different initiatives have been launched in the past decades to eliminate  unemployment among workers with disabilities.   And, majority of these initiatives have been  given attention by the community agencies in order to serve people with developmental disabilities and the government itself.   Normally, there are various vocational  training centers in the United States that accommodate  individuals with intellectual disabilities. They are classified as severe, intense, moderate or mild cases as how each individual assessed by their  support workers.  Generally, those in  mild cases, they are still able to live their lives independently and have the chance to take part in any employment programs.  As a result, the special vocational   workshop centers are being established, as well as the community socialization training mastery program. (http://www.who.int/mental_health/media/en/20.pdf) References: (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_disability) (http://www.who.int/mental_health/media/en/20.pdf)     Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Vocational Teaching Personnel For Individuals With Intellectual Disability Term Paper

Vocational Teaching Personnel for Individuals with Intellectual Disability Vocational teaching is increasing worldwide for indiv...

A Term Paper on Resources for Effective Vocational Training for Individuals with Intellectual Disability

Resources for Effective Vocational Training for Individuals with Intellectual Disability   Intellectual disability of some individuals is always associated with stigma in the society that they are not capable of doing task as what normal people do in the society.  In fact, there are various issues in a vocational training center for the people with intellectual disabilities.  Foremost, there is controversy about quality of vocational rehabilitation services.  In contrast, effective vocational training for these individuals can be determined by not service provider’s judgment but customers’ service satisfaction.   In the past decades, number of vocational rehabilitation agencies in the community is very limited.   Therefore, rehabilitation agencies did not feel before any drastic need to improve their quality and customer’s service satisfaction. However, at this time and age, because service quality competition is highly raised between rehabilitation agencies and consumerism concept; it has already begun to use rehabilitation fields and rehabilitation agencies for the individuals with intellectual deficiencies.  In addition to that, many people are wondering what kind of resources to be used or applied in order to get an effective achievement of the vocational rehabilitation.  What are the different benefits that individuals with intellectual disabilities can get from these agencies?    During economic trials, various criticisms can be heard on the effectiveness of every social welfare service including rehabilitation program.   Accordingly, issue of rehabilitation service’s cost and benefit is a very critical problem, especially, at times of economic crisis. Everyone knows that social welfare is not widespread in the society, and the major problem is the resources are very scarce.  As a result, professionals and non-professionals such as family members, businesses and volunteers are participating in the rehabilitation processes. Consequently role share and cooperation between professionals and non-professionals is very important issue in the rehabilitation fields. (http://muwoong-superman.blogspot.com/2007/06/effective-vocational-rehabilitation.html) Generally, the ultimate purpose of rehabilitation is a complete social integration for the disabled people. However many rehabilitation programs have been still provided under the separated training and service setting.  In addition, supported employment program is more effective program than any other vocational rehabilitation programs for the people with an intellectual disability.  As a result, supported employment program is the best suitable program for mentally retarded people’s characteristic. Additionally, supported employment program is more economical than traditional vocational rehabilitation programs. Third, supported employment program uses a variety of community resources such as business members, family members, and volunteers throughout whole rehabilitation process.  Lastly, supported employment program pursues social integration of the people with an intellectual disability through vocational rehabilitation.  According to Renzaglia, A, & Hutchins, M., supported employment program for these individuals are more effective and suitable to them, as to compare to the traditional vocational rehabilitation strategy. And due to various factors, such as traditional approaches are solely based on institution centered paradigm and individual model about the disability while supported employment is based on community centered paradigm and social model about the disability. (http://muwoong-superman.blogspot.com/2007/06/effective-vocational-rehabilitation.html) Equally important, is the assessment, curriculum, training method/settings, and placement/follow-ups are ways that help in developing the quality of supported employment approaches and strategies in this type of program. More than that, supported employment uses informal assessment procedures targeted community-based employment, a systematically select skill training, on-the-job training, and ongoing support that are more practical ways to  prepare the individuals with intellectual disability into the real  world.  In 1986, supported employment for individuals with intellectual disabilities has started, and it has been known since then as “competitive work in integrated work settings for individuals with severe handicaps for whom competitive employment has not traditionally occurred, or for individuals for whom competitive employment has been interrupted or intermittent as a result of a severe disability, and who because of their handicap, need ongoing support services to perform such work”.  Similarly, supported employment is a combination of employment opportunities and ongoing services for the individuals with intellectual disabilities.  It is the most effective and powerful, as well as flexible way to ensure normal employment benefits among them. In the same way, the program also provides continuous support, creates job opportunities and promotes full participation, integration and flexibility among the beneficiaries.  (http://www.jeed.or.jp/english/promotion.html) In the final note, individuals with intellectual disabilities have been stigmatized by the society, and more often, excluded from the majority group   of society.  With all these in mind, still, social discrimination, inequality and prejudice are always associated with mentally deficient people.    Modern society evolves into better and innovative society; various government, foremost in the developing countries like United States, which modified the traditional notion about the discrimination for these people. Instead, the government has taken provisions to improve their plight and help them to become productive as well in the society.  (http://www.jeed.or.jp/english/promotion.html) References: (http://muwoong-superman.blogspot.com/2007/06/effective-vocational-rehabilitation.html) (http://www.jeed.or.jp/english/promotion.html) Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

A Term Paper on Resources for Effective Vocational Training for Individuals with Intellectual Disability

Resources for Effective Vocational Training for Individuals with Intellectual Disability Intellectual disability of some individuals ...

Term Paper on the Personnel for Teaching Vocational Courses for Individuals with Intellectual Disability

PERSONNEL FOR TEACHING VOCATIONAL COURSES FOR INDIVIDUAL WITH INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY         The condition of individual with intellectual disability is slower in learning the procedures. The personnel or teachers may require higher tolerance and understanding in teaching especially able individual, it may be necessary to prepare teachers to guide them with proper handling and motivation. The personnel and teachers who can adjust to their needs more than their ability to teach, teachers can also be selected depending on the needs of the student and their attitude. An intellectually disabled graduate on such course or vocation can also learn to teach as a part of the support group they are the ones who can truly understand the needs of such individual.       If the content of such course is highly technical then the personnel or teachers who can do the job is the industry expert of the field for example the work involved is machine operation, the assistant of the training can do it but they may find it hard to handle and prepare a new sets of easier topics since the knowledge they may possess may be limited. Because of the nature of the work involved and the student’s disability they should learn to adjust through the course so that both teachers and students can benefit and they both able to meet their needs.         Beside academic and experience gained from work, the Industry teacher must be able to meet the following qualification; the teacher or trainee will be the one to organize and prepare the curriculum for students they must be able to present the industry requirements to present their students with real on the job training opportunities that they can use in the actual work. If the Industry can provide two teachers or instructor for a class is much better because they can usually support each other in training for a more diligent approach they should not contradict or distract but complimentary to each other so that that the students can learn even more. They can understand the different assessment that they can give to individual students.       The teachers is the one who is responsible for the necessary development and work pace of the students if they need to advance or slow down their manner in teaching. There are students who can easily adapt with the environment and there are usually student who may find it hard to adapt especially during the first few days of their sessions. They should be able to teach their student professionally and it can easily manifest in their performance at work when they are disciplined to attend in the class or training, when they are participative, when the students can handle task in less supervision and most of all they have good work ethics with their co- students or co workers and most of all when they can appreciate the value of their training they will perform well and usually they learn and succeed.       Teachers or trainers should be a role model if they can teach works and it shows in their life. Teachers may find it easy to teach good manners instantly if they can follow the rules and regulations of the organization or institution. They must practice again and again and emphasize tolerance to their students; they should refrain from judging or degrading such students and trainees who have a slow intellectual capacity to learn. They should be careful with their verbal and written words and physical and abusive contacts should not be practiced.       If needed by the students they should repeat their instruction in order to clarify the information they are teaching. The advocacy of personnel, teachers, trainer or instructors even the organization is to provide their students with the easiest instruction methodology without compromising the quality of their lessons. The students can learn in their authority they can also learn normally like we do.       Additionally the institution must provide therapeutic support personnel this can be family members a psychiatrist or clinical therapist or anyone who can uplift the students, someone that can handle emotional disturbance at work. Their students whether individual or group with intellectual disability may find it hard to cope-up with pressures and stress, the skills of the support group is very important to handle their misbehavior.       The teacher’s genuine love and concern to teach selflessly is the best contribution they can give to their students this qualification can give them the courage to continue their desire to help the student succeed in their works. The entire development of a student’s with intellectual disability is highly dependent on their instructors and their ability to teach. The students no matter what conditions they may have they can also feel the warm acceptance of their teachers and if they do, their students will highly persevere. They will someday appreciate and thank their teachers in respond, for they have not just given them education but hope and strength to live a good life.                                           Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Term Paper on the Personnel for Teaching Vocational Courses for Individuals with Intellectual Disability

PERSONNEL FOR TEACHING VOCATIONAL COURSES FOR INDIVIDUAL WITH INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY The condition of individual with intellect...

Innovation Management Term Paper

INTRODUCTION Innovation has been defined as the adoption of 	a new product or process that reflected the application of information 	technology. Information-technology innovations that required hands-on 	interaction with a computer-based system through a computer keyboard were 	examined in this study. Three criteria for selecting these innovations were 	established in light of the importance of clearly specifying the type of 	innovation to be sampled, in order to overcome the empirical instability and 	theoretical confusion arising from research on innovation in complex 	organizations (Downs and Mohr, 1976; Bigoness and Perreault, 1981). The 	first criterion was that the technological innovations had to have been 	designed for use by managers and/or professionals. At management levels, 	adoption of information technology is typically voluntary rather than 	mandatory. Consequently, certain persons may be needed to promote the 	introduction and implementation of these technologies. Moreover, to ensure 	more accurate recall of the innovation process by participants, the second 	criterion was that the innovation had to have been implemented within the 18 	months prior to the study The third criterion was that the innovation had to 	have represented a significant financial investment to the company. This 	criterion ensured that the innovation was visible in the organization and 	had a potentially important impact on managerial work.   MANAGEMENT OF INNOVATION Prior research evidence suggests that 	significant benefits can be reaped by firms that integrate technological and 	innovation considerations with corporate-wide strategic development (Fusfeld 	1989; Erickson et al. 1990; Pavitt 1990; Adler, McDonald, and McDonald 1992; 	Carrier 1996). Specifically, process improvements can help firms benefit 	from increased productivity and adaptability (Burgelman and Maidique 1988), 	and product innovation can increase a firm’s sales by providing unique or 	higher-performance products (Burgelman and Maidique 1988; Harms 1990; 	Guimaraes and Liska 1993). Moreover, innovation, is as well viewed as the 	creation, development, and introduction of new products and services, or 	product and service components, or a new procedure or process for doing 	things to benefit one or more of the stakeholders in an organization 	(Birchall, Chanaron, and Soderquist 1996). According to Drucker (1985), 	systematic innovation involves the purposeful and organizational search for 	changes and the systematic analysis of the opportunities such changes might 	offer for economic or social innovation. He cites seven sources of 	innovation, among which are innovation based on process needs, changes in 	industry or market structure, and new knowledge. Several research studies have pointed out the 	need for innovation as a key source of competitive advantage for 	organizations. In today’s competitive environment, the challenge for all 	businesses is not only to innovate in existing markets to survive and remain 	profitable, but also to innovate in new markets in order to stay in front of 	competitors. Similarly, the factor representing structure for managing 	innovation is significant for both product and process innovation. This 	factor adds to the management system identified above by encouraging 	development of new technologies or adaptation of emerging ones to both 	products and processes of the firm. This factor adds formal structure to the 	procedures identified in the factor above. The two fit together naturally to 	create an innovative organization. This is similar to the findings of 	Sebora, Hartman, and Tower (1994).   Innovation 	and the Concept of a Champion An innovation is, by definition, something new. 	A company can choose to introduce an invention, as the very first in its 	industry to have the new product or service for sale. It can be the last in 	its industry to adopt an innovation which all of its competitors already are 	selling. In either of these extreme cases, or in all those in between, the 	company must be aware of its industry and know what its competitors are 	doing with regard to innovation. The increased turbulence, complexity, and 	competitiveness of organizational environments have made the identification, 	evaluation, and adoption of technological innovations a critical determinant 	of organizational productivity, competition, and survival (Zaltman, Duncan, 	and Holbeck, 1973; Bigoness and Perreault, 1981; Morgan, 1988). As a result, 	a major research effort has focused on variables that facilitate or hinder 	the adoption of technological innovations (Kimberly and Evanisko, 1981; 	Pennings and Buitendam, 1987). 	One variable that has been strongly linked to the success of technological 	innovations is the presence of a champion. This is an individual who 	informally emerges in an organization (Schon, 1963; Tushman and Nadler, 	1986) and makes “a decisive contribution to the innovation by actively and 	enthusiastically promoting its progress through the critical 	[organizational] stages” (Achilladelis, Jervis, and Robertson, 1971: 14). 	Several authors have identified a number of different roles associated with 	innovation (Roberts, 1968; Achilladelis, Jervis, and Robertson, 1971; 	Maidique, 1980; Curley and Gremillion, 1983; Katz and Tushman, 1983). For 	example, gatekeepers acquire, translate, and distribute external 	technological knowledge and advancements to their colleagues (Allen, 1977; 	Tushman and Scanlan, 1981; Katz and Tushman, 1983). Project champions, the 	focus of the present study, distill creative ideas from information sources 	and then enthusiastically promote them within the organization 	(Achilladelis, Jervis, and Robertson, 1971). Business innovators provide 	support, access to resources, and protection from organizational 	interference as innovations emerge (Achilladelis, Jervis, and Robertson, 	1971). Technical innovators design and/or develop the innovation, while user 	champions implement the innovation by training and providing assistance to 	the users (Achilladelis, Jervis, and Robertson, 1971; Rothwell et al., 1974; 	Curley and Gremillion, 1983). In order to identify project champions 	reliably, different types of innovator roles need to be distinguished. To 	illustrate, while both project champions and gatekeepers are involved in 	communication and information-processing activities, gatekeepers gather and 	disseminate external information to project groups while champions seek out 	creative ideas from information sources and then enthusiastically sell them. 	Thus, many studies reportedly investigating champions may not be studying 	champions at all if they have been inappropriately identified. 	Leadership and influence are also important, since innovation adoption is 	largely a process of influence (Burgelman, 1983; Dean, 1987), both with 	subordinates, as indicated by leadership behavior, and with peers and 	superiors, as indicated by influence tactics.   Innovation 	Managers as Champions Intense competition in the 	marketplace is forcing organizations to examine the different ways by which 	they could enhance or retain their competitive advantage. Several 	organizations have generated sustained competitive advantage through a 	continuous stream of incremental, overarching, and discontinuous innovation. 	There is a burgeoning literature on the competitive importance of innovation 	and the linkage between innovation and organization renewal across 	industries and countries (Schoonhoven, Eisenhardt, and Lyman 1990; Morone 	1993; Hamel and Prahalad 1994; Utterback 1994). Central to the notion of 	technology as a competitive advantage for nations, firms, and industries is 	the significant role of companies as a source of innovation during the early 	stages of new and emerging technologies (Abernathy and Utterback 1978). Making broad strategy for a 	company is one of the major tasks of innovation managers. This involves 	setting long-term directions and goals, and allocating resources so that the 	directions can be pursued and the goals can be reached. (Chandler, 1963) 	Innovation managers, in their role as strategists, must also deal with 	unforeseen events which emerge in the course of implementing their chosen 	strategies. (Mintzberg and Waters, 1985) One key element, which must be 	dealt with in pursuing strategy, is the set of companies with which a firm 	competes – its industry. Innovation managers are 	responsible for all parts of a division or a company. To the extent that 	they can strengthen or change cultural elements, which favor innovation, 	they can make the whole division or firm more accepting and supportive of 	innovation. Managers can play various roles with regard to forming and 	executing their company’s strategy. These roles can vary from commander, 	giving orders and expecting obedience, to sponsor, encouraging ideas from 	below and nurturing their development. (Hart, 1992) In terms of fostering a 	culture of innovation, the role of sponsor is clearly more appropriate than 	that of commander.   If innovation is to be part 	of a company’s or division’s core competence, then it requires the 	coordinating effort of the innovation manager. As we will see in the 	following section, attempts to be an inventor and gain first mover 	advantages require certain kinds of coordination, while attempts to innovate 	by being an early adopter of the innovations of others require somewhat 	different coordinative efforts. However, in both cases speed to market is an 	important factor, and needs to be managed by the manager. Furthermore, 	several writers have conceptually linked transformational leadership to the 	innovation process (Oberg, 1972; House, 1977; Bass, 1985). Oberg (1972) 	discussed the change-agent function of the transformational leader. He 	contended that the transformational leader brings about radical change by 	espousing beliefs and values that are different from the established order. 	According to Bass (1985), who offered a consistent profile of the 	transformational leader as active innovator, transformational leaders use 	intellectual stimulation to enhance followers’ capacities to think on their 	own, to develop new ideas, and to question the operating rules and systems 	that no longer serve the organization’s purpose or mission. By using 	individualized consideration and intellectual stimulation, transformational 	leaders enhance followers’ confidence and skills to devise and implement 	innovative responses to current problems facing their organization.   	Organizational Culture and Innovation Management While it is important for the innovation 	manager to know what is going on in his or her industry, the basic job of 	the innovation manager is to run his or her company or division. Managers 	direct and coordinate the work of other managers; they do not, by and large, 	produce widgets. Yet, according to current theory, they are directly 	responsible for two key areas, which affect a company’s success or failure 	in innovation. Organizational culture, the first of these areas, involves 	shared values and beliefs which provide unstated guidance and direction for 	choices and actions of members of the organization at all levels. The core 	competence of the firm, the second key area of responsibility of innovation 	managers, is the central set of abilities or resources that sets a company 	apart from its competitors and from which spring its success in selling 	products or services to its customers at a price which allows for profit. We 	will now examine these two concepts, and how they can be managed for 	innovation. 	Organizational culture is the “deeper level of basic assumptions and beliefs 	that are shared by members of an organization, that operate unconsciously, 	and that define in a basic ‘taken for granted’ fashion an organization’s 	view of itself and its environment.” (Schein, 1985) A less precise 	definition is that culture is the way we do things around here. 	An organization’s culture is embodied in such things as degree of formality 	(titles or first names), style of buildings and furniture, and stories and 	legends. Jelinek and Schoonhoven tell of a story they heard repeatedly while 	doing research at Texas Instruments. (Jelinek and Schoonhoven, 1993) The 	story, told in various forms, involves an engineer who persisted in working 	on an invention even when ordered not to and threatened with firing. His 	invention turned out to be a commercial success. Stories such as this become 	legends. They typically make a clear point about a company’s culture, and 	are often told to almost every newcomer to the company, thus passing on the 	culture. One important characteristic of culture is its breadth. It is 	generally assumed to transcend functional or regional boundaries within a 	firm. 	Several authors have indicated that time is one of the shared values that 	characterize an organization’s culture. (Davis, 1984; Deal and Kennedy, 	1982) These shared values are thought to be especially strong when they 	address matters that pertain to a company’s survival and success. Successful 	companies in such high-velocity industries as microelectronics and personal 	computers are permeated by a sense of urgency and the importance of speed. A 	service industry where leading competitors share similar values is the 	overnight package delivery business. Time truly is of the essence for the 	success and survival of these companies. 	Bureaucracy is sometimes thought of as a characteristic of public agencies. 	However, examples of large bureaucratic companies are plentiful, and also 	involve shared values. Formal structure, clear division of tasks and lines 	of authority, and numerous written rules and procedures characterize 	bureaucratic organizations. Bureaucratic companies are better suited to 	incremental than to radical innovation and to slow and deliberate 	decision-making. (Draft, 1982; Thompson, 1969) An organization with a 	bureaucratic culture shares some values, which make it poorly, adapted to a 	high velocity industry.   Organizational culture 	involves symbolic actions and physical settings. The innovation manager can 	emphasize some values and de-emphasize others by the things he or she does 	personally, the meetings attended, and the physical organization. If he or 	she attends all major sales meetings, personally gives out sales awards, and 	tells stories about major sales successes, but has not visited the R&D 	department in the last two years, it is clear to all that this company has a 	sales culture, and places less value on its engineers. 	  	CONCLUSION At the level of the company, managing 	innovation means managing culture and core competence. Both are within the 	responsibility of the manager. Indeed, he or she may be the only one well 	situated to manage them. Elements of a culture can be changed over time, or 	reinforced. A core competence can be fostered and strengthened, or focused 	toward somewhat different skills and strengths. Managing innovation at this 	level means knowing what the company’s culture and core competence are, and 	attempting to match them with the kind of innovative products and services 	they favor. It also involves supporting and reaffirming them, or trying to 	gradually modify them in a chosen direction. At the level of the individual innovation, 	managing innovation deals with choice of and support for projects, efforts 	to streamline the research and development procedures to the extent 	possible, and coordination of all the elements that make up speed to market. 	Here the innovation manager’s role is to oversee and coordinate the work of 	various functional managers, with a clear eye to expediting the overall 	process. Moreover, organizations must learn to modify their characteristics 	quickly as external environments change or compete at a disadvantage against 	more nimble rivals. Organizational structure is also likely to be related to 	innovation simply because it provides the formal, internal context within 	which the process of innovation must proceed. Formal structure determines 	who has the authority to make innovation-related decisions and the degree of 	autonomy and flexibility that individual managers have to initiate new 	ideas. Structure also affects the direction and amount of information, which 	is exchanged between participants in the innovations process. While formal organizational characteristics 	such as complexity and decentralization, have been captured elsewhere in 	models of innovation, informal, culturally derived characteristics have not. 	The informal characteristics examined here reflect the degree to which 	organizational norms support and direct behaviors associated with the 	innovation process. It is important to consider informal controls on 	behavior in innovation research, since innovation is an unstructured 	problem. This means that neither the outcome nor the means of accomplishing 	any specific attempt to innovate can be predicted with certainty. Therefore, 	innovation-related problems are not amenable to solutions using formal 	organizational techniques, such as rules and procedures or appeals through 	the hierarchy. Nevertheless, organizations that expect to be 	successful in innovating must somehow direct and control the process. 	Informal, inner directed controls, such as norms, can be an effective method 	of motivating and directing the solution of unstructured problems. Norms 	have also been shown to be a means of directing organizational behaviors in 	accordance with the values and expectations of an organization’s culture. 	These norms, if they are shown to influence innovation outcomes, should be 	incorporated within existing models in order to move in the direction of 	providing a more comprehensive, integrated model of organizational 	innovation.   BIBLIOGRAPHY Achilladelis, B., P. Jervis, and A. Robertson, 1971 A Study of Success and Failure in Industrial Innovation. Sussex, England: University of Sussex Press. Adler, P., D. McDonald, and F. MacDonald (1992). “Strategic Management of Technical Functions,” Sloan Management Review 33(3), 19-37. Allen, Thomas J. 1977 Managing the Flow of Technology. Cambridge, MA:MIT Press. Bass, Bernard M. 1985 Leadership and Performance beyond Expectations. New York: Free Press. Bigoness, William J., and William D. Perreault, 1981 “A conceptual paradigm and approach for the study of innovators.” Academy of Management Journal, 24: 68-82. Birchall, D., J. Chanaron, and K. Soderquist (1996). “Managing Innovation in SMEs: A Comparison of Companies in the UK, France, and Portugal,” International Journal of Technology Management 12(3), 291-305. Burgelman, R. A. 1983 “A process model of internal corporate venturing in a diversified major firm.” Administrative Science Quarterly, 28: 223-244. Burgelman, R., and M. Maidique (1988). Strategic Management of Technology and Innovation. Homewood, Ill.: Irwin. Carrier, C. (1996). “Entrepreneurship in Small Businesses: An Exploratory Study,” Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice 21(1), 5-20. Chandler, A. (1963) Strategy and Structure. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Curley, Kathleen F., and Lee L. Gremillion 1983 “The role of the champion in DSS implementation.” Information and Management, 6: 203-209. Draft, R. (1982) “Bureaucratic Versus Nonbureaucratic Structure and the Process of Innovation and Change.” In Bacharach, S. (Ed.), Research in the Sociology of Organizations, Vol. 1. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Davis, S. (1984) Managing Corporate Culture. Cambridge MA: Ballinger. Deal, T. & Kennedy, A. (1982) Corporate Cultures. Reading MA: Addison-Wesley. Dean, James W. 1987 “Building the future: The justification process for new technology.” In Johannes M. Pennings and Arend Buitendam (eds.), New Technology as Organizational Innovation: 35-58. Cambridge, MA:Ballinger. Downs, G. and L. Mohr. “Conceptual Issues in the Study of Innovation.” Administrative Science Quarterly, December 1976. Drucker, P. (1985). Innovation and Entrepreneurship. London: Heinemann. Erickson, T., J. Magee, P. Rousel, and K. Saad (1990). “Managing Technology as a Business Strategy,” Sloan Management Review 31(3), 73-78. Fusfeld, A. (1989). “Formulating Technology Strategies to Meet the Global Challenges of the 1990s,” International Journal of Technology Management 4(6), 601-612. Guimaraes, T., and K. Liska (1993). “Empirically Assessing the Effectiveness of Mechanisms and Activities Used for Organization Innovation,” Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research. Ed. N.C. Churchill, S. Birley, J. Doutriaux, E.J. Gatewood, F.S. Hoy, and W.E. Wetzel, Jr. Wellesley, Mass.: Babson College, 41-57. Hamel, G., and C. Prahalad, (1994). Competing for the Future. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Business School Press. Harms, J. (1990). “Are You a Marketing-Oriented Company?” Small Business Reports 15, 20-24. Hart, S. (1982) “An Integrative Framework for Strategy-Making Processes.” Academy of Management Review, 17,2: 327-351. House, Robert J. 1977 “A 1976 theory of charismatic leadership.” In James Gerald Hunt and Lars L. Larson (eds.), Leadership: The Cutting Edge: 189-207. Carbondale, IL. Jelinek, M. & Schoonhoven, C. (1993) The Innovation Marathon: Lessons from High Technology Firms. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Katz, Ralph, and Michael L. Tushman 1983 “A longitudinal study of the effects of boundary spanning supervision on turnover and promotion in research and development.” Academy of Management Journal, 26: 437-456. Kimberly, John R., and Michael J. Evanisko, 1981 “Organizational innovation: The influence of individual, organizational, and contextual factors on hospital adoption of technological and administrative innovation.” Academy of Management Journal, 24: 689-713. Maidique, Modesto A. 1980 “Entrepreneurs, champions, and technological innovation.” Sloan Management Review, 21(2): 59-76. Mintzberg, H. & Waters, J. (1985) “Of Strategies, Deliberate and Emergent.” Strategic Management Journal 6: 257-272. Morgan, Gareth, 1988 Riding the Waves of Change. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Morone, J. (1993). Winning in High Tech Markets. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Business School Press. Oberg, William 1972 “Charisma, commitment, and contemporary organization theory.” M.S.U. Business Topics, 20: 18-32. Pavitt, K. (1990). “What We Know about Strategic Management of Technology,” California Management Review, Spring, 17-26. Pennings, Johannes M., and Arend Buitendam (eds.) 1987 New Technology as Organizational Innovation. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger. Roberts, Edward B. 1968 “A basic study of innovators: How to keep and capitalize on their talents.” Research Management, 11: 249-266. Rothwell, R., C. Freeman, A. Horlsey, V.T.P. Jervis, A.B. Robertson, and J. Townsend,  1974 “SAPPHO updated–Project SAPPHO phase II.” Research Policy, 3: 258-291. Schein, E. (1985) Organizational Culture and Leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Schon, Donald A.1963 “Champions for radical new inventions.” Harvard Business Review, 41(March-April): 77-86. Schoonhoven, K., K. Eisenhardt, and K. Lyman (1990). “Speeding Products to Markets,” Administrative Science Quarterly 35(1), 177-207. Sebora, T., E. Hartman, and C. Tower (1994). “Innovative Activity in Small Businesses: Competitive Context and Organizational Level,” Journal of Engineering and Technology Management 11(1), 253-272. Thompson, V. (1969) Bureaucracy and Innovation. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press. Tushman, Michael L., and Thomas J. Scanlan. 1981 “Boundary spanning individuals: Their role in information transfer and their antecedents.c Academy of Management Journal 24 289-305. Tushman, Michael, and David Nadler, 1986 “Organizing for innovation.” California Management Review, 28(3): 74-92. Utterback, J. (1994). Mastering the Dynamics of Innovation. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Business School Press. Zaltman, Gerald, Robert Duncan, and Johnny Holbeck, 1973 Innovations and Organizations. New York: Wiley. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Innovation Management Term Paper

INTRODUCTION Innovation has been defined as the adoption of a new product or process that reflected the application of information techn...

Term Paper on the Concept and Definition of Visual Impairment

VISUAL IMPAIRMENT         Visual impairment is a disease in vision and partial sight that may lead to blindness. It is an abnormal visual behavior that affects people to demonstrate a decrease in visual acuity. There are many factors that may affect a person from having this kind of visual abnormality sometimes a person may be genetically born to have such visual impairment.       A person who has been born with this kind of visual acuity may also be physically weak in mobility and intellectual capacity when they grow up therefore they are definitely required for an extensive medical attention as early as possible to be able to apply an immediate cure to their vision. Sometimes inborn vision impairment may not be cured at all by any medical surgery because of complication or it may vary from different type of severity and therefore medical operation may be crucial to the extent of total blindness or complication that may lead to death.       Most of the times less severe visual impairment can simply be cured by using an eye glasses or contact lenses. There are different types of visual impairment according to level of severity; firstly is the partially sighted person who can see but with less vision, they can sometimes depend on their own to mobilize and grasp things independently but may require a special assistance when reading because of small details that they may not easily identify while reading. Second is the low vision individual which suffers a more serious visual problems than a partially sighted person, they may need a Braille system when reading although there is a slight visual transparency in their vision when nearer. Next is the legally blind person who cannot see things clearly near or far but just a reflection or abstract images. Lastly is the totally blind person who has no vision all. This kind of blindness is usually incurable and may require a Braille system to understand and read objects.       One eye blindness is another form of visual impurities that can create an imbalance and abnormal vision to a person who suffered from this kind of abnormalities but nevertheless they can still be as normal in conceptual framework of development such as learning and reading.  Conceptually a person may also suffered from deaf blindness or an umbrella effect that may cause a person to be deaf and blind at the same time children and adult alike can be susceptible with this visual disease depending on their progression or experiences. It can also be inborn or hereditary.       Basically a person with this kind of visual imperfection may be need to a thorough attention in learning from various institutions and schools for the blind so that they can be given a special treatment and gradually assess their consistency in learning. Their performance in school may or may not be like of those ordinary students depending on their physical and spiritual capacity and interest to learn but basically it is an understandable behavior that visually impaired students are expected to learn slowly because of their situation. Braille system and cane stick has been very helpful in their learning capability that should always be available on their side in school or even at home if possible.         A person with a regular 20/20 vision can also be affected in this kind of disease accordingly and there are many reasons why people can suffer from this impairment. ·         Infection from bacteria can cause visual impurities, especially from busy streets and construction sites where there are dangers in visual suffocation. ·         Dust, moisture and any other harmful chemicals and objects that are large enough to enter into our eyes can ruin our vision. ·         Cataracts that shows a cloudy vision due to overuse of vision. This condition can be surgically treated with the use of eye glasses and or contact lenses. ·         Amblyopia which is caused by misaligned eyes that causes the brain to interpret images in unlikely manners. ·         Macular degeneration of retina, a part of the eye that weakens its condition that usually occurs because of aging, vices like smoking and over exposure to sunlight.       Ophthalmology and other medical professionals that is concerned in eye care should be sought if a person experience any of the above visual impurities so that they can be given professional attention and treatment that is legally applicable to their conditions and can manifest cure rather than neglect or self medication that is basically dangerous. A person who self medicate can put themselves in a more dangerous condition when not properly guided by applicable treatment.          Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Term Paper on the Concept and Definition of Visual Impairment

VISUAL IMPAIRMENT Visual impairment is a disease in vision and partial sight that may lead to blindness. It is an abnormal visua...

1. How can risk present both opportunities and threats to projects?

Humour in Comic Strips: A pragmatic analysis of Nemi   Introduction             The saying that laughter is the best medicine is considered to be one of the famous sayings in the world. With these, different people especially in the art categories are trying to become as humorous as they can to attract people and to make other people happy. Accordingly, there are different kinds of humours which depend on the medium used. It is considered that humorous texts are the most popular kind of humour which deals with features and social categories which are typical to the societies in the world. There are some humorous texts regarding gender, sex, and age and this can be seen through mediums like books, cartoons and others. On the other hand, there is also humour which is used in comic strips. There are two types of comic strips. This includes the episode strip and the joke-strip. The first is a chapter of a longer narrative strip and the other is a comic situation in which a specific character plays a role and which is published in various magazines or newspapers in a daily basis (Mendonca, 2002). It can be said that the comic strip functions can be the same to that of verbal and written humours or jokes in which themes and strategies are continual. In terms of thematic approach, jokes and comic strips usually address social taboos such as family values, sex and others, social institutions as well as cultural representations like school, church, government and others, human stereotypes such as the stupid, the dumb, liar, foreigner, sexy lady, and others. In addition, some cognitive-linguistic approaches are also shared by comic strips include exploitation of ambiguity and unfitting expectations.  For some comic strip makers, characters usually come first, and then the theme. In this regard, once a specific character is established, with character is chosen or created, with distinct psychological characteristics, thematic strategy will be next. For example, the rebel character of Kevin (Calvin), Hagar’s stupid and rough character, political character of Mafalda and chauvinistic personality of Bibelô who acts in various situations where their personalities can be highlighted, within broad areas of themes. Even if the situation differs for the cartoonists, for the linguists, approaches for creating meaning are the one that matters. In comparing with the comic-strips humours, the character’s reactions are highly predictable (Possenti, 1998), because of their very well-distinguished personality.             In order to analyse humour, this report will be provided. Primarily, the main goal of this essay is to give a preliminary overview of humour, through the use of comic strips Nemi. This paper will include the discussion on how humour has been used in Nemi. This paper will give focus on how Nemi utilise humour in accordance with text comprehension, humour and the unsaid, politeness and impoliteness, specifically how the character (Nemi)  use politeness.  Furthermore, this paper will attempt to discuss what this tells us about Nemi’s relationships and humour in the character herself. Lastly, this paper will also provide discussion on how the use how the use of politeness and impoliteness varies from character to character, and the reasons for this variations.   Description of the Comic Strips: Nemi             Nemi is a Norwegian comic strip which is created by Lise Myhre in 1997. However, the first Nemi strips was first appeared in Larson Gale Verden in 1999 and its first Nemi strips collection came out during the summer of 2000. The comic strip is about a woman (Nemi) about 25 years of age living in Norway with a very pale skin and always wears black primarily because of her affiliations with Goth objects. The comic strip depicts the outsider status of Nemi within the Norwegian society because of her personality and physical appearance. Nemi is known to be a tough girl with an attitude, she is frank in her opinions and a confrontational individuals. In this study, 10 strips will be chosen to be analysed pragmatically.   Comic Strip 1 src=”new_page_1_files/image002.jpg” v:shapes=”_x0000_s1033″>               The first strip has been in a situation where the lead character Nemi has seen a guy while walking on the streets and exchanges their “hi” in a sexy manner. When they passed each other, the two exhaled which shows their true appearance.  In this strip, humour is set through the use of illustrations alone. By exaggerating the feature of the two characters, it gives the reader the perception that a person can do everything just to attract others. In terms of the use of texts, the strip has only used simple words which includes “hi” to show that each character in the strip like each other and “phoo” a word which depicts how the two release the air and show their true body built. In this strip, the author is said to use logical reasoning in the way she illustrates the characters. In terms of politeness and impoliteness, it can be said that the particular strip have not been able to show these two contexts, since there are not much dialogues used and since the two characters are not really related to each other.  In this comic strip, gender identity is largely seen.   Comic Strip 2 src=”new_page_1_files/image004.jpg” v:shapes=”_x0000_s1034″>               In terms of mechanism of the comic strip, it can be said that this particular comic strip uses the satire style, in which the author used to attack the character (Neri). In addition, in terms of text, the author uses direct languages and texts which show the intimacy of the character of the strips. Furthermore, the author has also been able to use simple languages to be understood easily. The comic strip is about two individuals who seem to be dating and find something that attracts the lady’s attention. It can be said that the comic strip can be easily interpreted because of the logical situations in the strip. In terms of politeness and impoliteness, it can be said that the comic strip seems to use more of impoliteness than politeness. As Nemi ask the opinion of the man regarding the eye glass that she wear and if it makes her smarter, the man answers her in an impolite an indirect manner which is “not really”. This word can be interpreted as a rude response specifically when it comes from a man (Crawford, 1995), talking to a woman who usually needs praises than rude answers.   Comic Strip 3 src=”new_page_1_files/image006.jpg” v:shapes=”_x0000_s1035″>             The comic strip shows a situation where Nemi is dating with a man and she is telling her feelings on the situation. this strip is said to become funnier because of the logical presentation of the theme. The comic strip’s mechanism is somewhat an irony as Nemi is describing the man she is dating ironically. In addition, this comic strip has been able to use parody as the cartoonists exaggerate the appearance of the man Nemi is dating. In terms of the texts use, the author has used indirect language as Nemi is talking reversely on the man. In addition, this strip is logical as it creates rational thinking on the part of the reader. Herein, politeness contexts have been used, though very little, and it also depicts impoliteness. Accordingly, politeness must be seen as a set of approaches of verbal habits, on which in this case, Nemi judges the man directly.   Comic Strip 4 src=”new_page_1_files/image008.jpg” v:shapes=”_x0000_s1036″>             The mechanism of comic strip is considered to be satire as Nemi tries to attack the blonde woman using rude words and languages. Herein, the author used texts which depicts that some of the characters are not related and close to each other ( in this case, the blonde woman and Nemi). The comic strip is about three girls who are hanging out in a bar, when Nemi (the main character) decided to go home because she cannot be beside a woman who talks things that do not make appeal on her like make-ups. Herein, instead of feeling offended, the blonde woman has reacted reversely as she felt that Nemi praises her. This is a funny strip since it makes the reader think that the woman is stupid on not knowing the real feeling of Nemi about her. The comic strip uses logical reasoning in line with the notion on how Nemi got so bored, which is because they have different personalities.   Comic Strip 5 src=”new_page_1_files/image010.jpg” v:shapes=”_x0000_s1037″> The mechanism of comic strip is considered to be a humour of the absurd. This is said so because the comic strip have not been able to follow the rules of logic.In addition, the mechanism of the comic strip above is also considered as a farce humour, since it presents Cyan as the victim of the situation. Herein, the author used text which shows the closeness and intimacy of Cyan and Nemi with each other. The humorous texts used is also considered to use organize text to understand completely the conversation between Cyan and Nemi. The comic strip is about two girls in which one is afraid of spider and the other has the courage to hold the spider (Nemi). In this strip, it can be seen that scared reaction of Cyan as she screamed that there is a spider hanging near her. Since Nemi is fond of spiders she offered Cyan that she can take the spider away in one condition, that is, when the former will give Nemi a chocolate. Cyan did give Nemi a chocolate but she realise the Nemi has put the spider in the bedroom and Nemi offers to take it away, of course with a connotation that she’ll take it in one condition. This is a funny strip since you can see how Nemi can play with the feelings and emotions of her friends when it came to creepy animals. The comic strip has been able to provide background knowledge from the first strip and logical reasons until the last part of the strip. In terms of politeness, it can be seen that this comic strip has used politeness, in the part of Nemi as she offered to take away the spider and in the part of Cyan as she requests Nemi to take the spider.     Comic Strip 6 src=”new_page_1_files/image012.jpg” v:shapes=”_x0000_s1038″>   The mechanism of comic strip is considered to be Parody as the author exaggerated how Nemi reads the book. It can be said that the comic strip have used texts which are long and narrative texts. As can be seen in the strip, Nemi is reading a story to a girl before sleeping. Having an attitude of her own, instead of reading the story as it is, Nemi has created a story out of what she is reading which gets the attention of the girl who is sleepy. As she hears what Nemi said, her eyes become bigger, knowing that Nemi is not reading through the texts in the book. In this comic strip, it can be said that the author has used some background knowledge on a story and use this in the strip. On the other hand, the strip has followed logical reasoning from the first to the second part. In terms of politeness and impoliteness, it can be said that there is no trace of this context in this particular strip.   Comic Strip 7 src=”new_page_1_files/image014.jpg” v:shapes=”_x0000_s1039″> The mechanism of comic strip is considered to be irony, as Nemi is telling things to the man in a reverse manner. Caricature is also used as a mechanism for humour in this comic strip as it shows some exaggeration on the facial expression of Nemi as she is trying to convince the man to have his tattoo.  Herein, the author used texts which are simple and exclamatory texts. In addition, the strip also used juxtaposition.  Herein, the comic strip is about how Nemi is forcing or influencing the man on having a tattoo even if he is underage. Nemi is using words to influence the man, and she make herself an example to convince him have his tattoo even if his father do not allow him to have it until he is 18. The comic strip has been able to use chronological and logical reasoning which allows the reader to understand where the strip is coming from. In this text, there is not much politeness and impoliteness context seen.   Comic Strip 8 src=”new_page_1_files/image016.jpg” v:shapes=”_x0000_s1040″> The mechanism of comic strip is considered to use parody and caricature style. Parody because the strip have an exaggeration of the style and the characters, which is shown on the face, specifically in the huge smile of the man who approaches Nemi. On the other hand, this comic strip uses caricature in both texts and illustrations as the author provided unpleasant reactions from Nemi, because of the fact that he does not know where he met the man. The texts used in this strip are simple yet irrational. It uses combinations of simple and long sentences. The comic strip is about a man who approaches a girl whom he thought he knew. But Nemi is confused on whether he knew the man. The man hugged the girl as if they were closed, but after a while, the man asked if Nemi is Rita, which caused embarrassment for the man and Nemi. It can be said that the comic strip is illustrated and written in chronological and logical order and have an effective background of knowledge.  In terms of politeness and impoliteness, it can be said that the comic strip can be considered to depict politeness as Nemi has not scolded the man even if she really doesn’t know him. She also reacts politely as the man approaches him.   Comic Strip 9 src=”new_page_1_files/image018.jpg” v:shapes=”_x0000_s1041″>   The mechanism of comic strip is considered to utilise caricature and parody style. This is because of the exaggerations on the face of the male character and the exaggeration of Nemi’s face, especially when the male character killed the spider. As we all know, Nemi is fond of spiders and she is sensitive when it comes to killing insects. The comic strip uses texts which are narrative and imperative. In addition, the comic strip also used exclamatory sentences.             The comic strip is about Nemi and a man, in which Nemi told the man not to kill the spider for it will bring bad karma. However, instead of following Nemi, he killed the spider and he said that bad karma only happens when one believe it. In return, Nemi punches the man in the eye and said that she believe in karma. It can be said that this particular strip follows some background knowledge regarding karma and it also follows logical reasoning on why Nemi punished the man. In this strip, the politeness and impoliteness have not been used intensely.   Comic Strip 10 src=”new_page_1_files/image020.jpg” v:shapes=”_x0000_s1042″>   The mechanism of comic strip above can be considered as irony as Nemi is saying things which are in contrast to the true meaning of the words. In this comic strip, the author uses short and long sentences and in some part, no texts are used. The humorous texts used is also considered be in order to easily get the meaning of what they are saying. The comic strip is about Nemi and her friend Cyan and Nemi is telling her friend that she wants a child. Through the reaction of Cyan, it shows that she is hesitant with what Nemi is saying, but she still gives her advice. However, it shows some misinterpretations as Cyan interpreted Nemi’s words wrongly.  What Nemi wants is to have a free ticket to action towers and not to have a child of her own. This is a funny strip since you can see how Nemi made her friend surprised with her desires of having a child just because she wants a free ticket. It can be said that the strip has been able to provide background knowledge from the first part of the strip and logical reasons until the last part of the strip. In line with politeness and impoliteness, there is not much about these contexts in this comic strip.   Conclusion             It can be said that the study of humour gives an excellent region of consciousness in as much as it depicts to a very complicated experience. Herein, it can be said that the comic strip Nemi has been able to provide humorous texts and sceneries which made it more appealing to the readers. Although there are some strips that is not that humorous, these strips is still seems to lighten the mood of the reader because of the funny graphics and facial expressions of the characters. Some of the strips from Nemi have used the contexts of politeness while some have not considered it. Furthermore, it can be said also that most of the strips followed satire, irony, parody, and caricature as their mechanisms in depicting humorous events.   Reference Crawford, M. (1995) Talking Difference: On Gender and Language, London, Sage   Mendonca, M.R.S. (2002). Um gênero quadro a quadro: a história em quadrinhos. In DIONISIO, A., MACHADO, A. R. e BEZERRA, M. A. Gêneros textuais e ensino. Rio de Janeiro: Lucerna,   Possenti, S. (1998). Os humores da língua: análise lingüística de piadas. São Paulo: Mercado de Letras, Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

1. How can risk present both opportunities and threats to projects?

Humour in Comic Strips: A pragmatic analysis of Nemi Introduction The saying that laughter is the best medicine is considered...