Research Articles Base: Transport Policy And Planning

Case Study of Kellya’s Transport (International)

Case Study of Kellyâ Case Study of Kellyâ€™s Transport (International) plc.               The case study was about Kelly’s Transport (International) plc. On the first part, the topic discussed is on the possible strategies for Bill, in order for him to become flexible in responding to the present opportunities for the next two years. Next is on the key performance measures he could use and how this measure is linked with the possible strategies cited. And on the last part, are the strengths and weaknesses of these measures and the way they could be implemented at the management and operational levels of the said business. Outline of Possible Strategies No one strategy is generally superior to the other. On average, all of them perform economically. Their success depends more on how well each is executed and less on the market environment of the business. In other words, a well-executed product leadership strategy can be successful in both dynamic and stable markets, as can a well-executed customer intimacy or operational excellence strategy. Each strategy does have its own key characteristics, as well as its individual requirements for successful execution. For Kelly’s present business situation, product leadership strategy is appropriate. Product leaders seek to identify emerging opportunities and continuously strive to develop and deliver new products that exceed existing performance boundaries. They look for first-mover advantages that accrue to pioneering businesses from the often short-lived monopoly position the product enjoys, from the resultant reputation for innovation, from preferential access to both suppliers and distributors, and from the potential for creation of customer loyalty or buyer switching costs. The key task for product leaders is to maintain an environment in which focused creativity can flourish. This type of activity, however, requires a culture that encourages experimentation and risk-taking, one in which well-developed plans that fail are often celebrated rather than punished. Product leaders usually work in multifunctional teams so that communication among the key areas of marketing, R&D, and production is rapid, leading to shorter response times and development cycles, They recognize the importance not only of profitability, but also of developing platform technologies and products that become the foundation for future products. This can be mixed with the customer intimacy strategy. Here, they focus their efforts on building strong relationships with a select group of customers whose needs they understand deeply and who are willing to pay a premium for the service or special attention they receive. Accompanying this orientation is a focus on the lifetime value of a relationship, not just the profit from an individual transaction. From the business’s perspective, it costs only about one-fifth as much to make an additional sale to an existing customer as it is does to attract and sell to a new one. Thus, the concepts of “customer equity” and “customer share” instead of market share are central to the customer-intimate business. Operational excellence is another option. This is the discipline of businesses that offer the lowest total cost to their customers. In many cases, this may mean the lowest price. In other cases, though, it means identifying other critical costs to customers, reducing them, and avoiding price competition. For example, a company charges more than its competitors for rapid document delivery. However, that price premium is more than offset by the customer’s confidence that the package will be delivered on time and by company’s ability to provide real-time document tracking. So the total cost to the customer associated with the document and its delivery is lower, even though the price is higher, because of the company’s operational excellence. Applying this to Kelly’s situation, this will now be the case. Since Bill can see a great future for them in the pharmaceutical industry, the company must exert efforts to remain competitive in this area. They should take advantage of this strength and for them to gain the confidence, not only of present and future customers, but as well as investors. This will erase all their doubts on the financial capability of the business. In case of future expansions, they will easily lend the company the needed amount since they have confidence that the company has the ability of paying them in the future. For the food manufacturing business as well as the UK operation, it needed much attention as to the control of the activities. First, they should conduct a thorough study of the activities in the said areas, as well as market research and surveys of their customers regarding their service. In here, they can now create plans for the future basing on the gathered information from the said study. They needed not only short-term plans, but also long-term plans. This is to address their weakness on having no long-term plan. They should also consider on researching on a number of possible suppliers instead of having only one source. This is to compare prices and to get the least cost of the best quality resources they needed.    On Performance Measurement Business units with a performance measurement focus that complements their market strategy are generally perceived to be superior performers by senior management. This is not to say that only one of those perspectives should be recognized in a given strategic context. Instead, one perspective should dominate, with lesser attention being given to the other two. Control systems are the significant connection between strategy execution and strategy adjustment. It is naive to believe a strategy can be successfully executed consistently without adjustments or corrections, both minor and major. Business managers must monitor customer needs and preferences, competitors’ actions, technology development, and the performance of internal processes, as well as the overall financial condition of the business. The fundamental reason we measure anything in a business is to determine when and how we should shift behavior. A multidimensional performance measurement and analysis system is the heart of an effective strategic control system. It provides the basis for organizational learning from an analysis of the results of the firm’s actions. But a control system that only measures a single performance (example: financial performance) is not enough, even if it measures several dimensions of it. Financial performance is an outcome. By the time that information is available, the game, or at least the inning, is probably over. The multidimensional approach should include leading indicators so that there is an opportunity to influence the final results. One of the most popular multidimensional approaches to performance measurement is the recent work by Robert Kaplan and David Norton on the “Balanced Scorecard”. It is also the most popular one among managers. The balanced scorecard presents managers with four different perspectives on performance from which to choose the strategy-specific measures that become the centerpiece of the strategic control system. They are the perspectives on financial, customer focused, internally analytical and innovative. Concerns on the identification of the key financial drivers in creating shareholder wealth are what the financial perspective is all about. Shareholder wealth is created when the business earns a rate of return on invested capital that exceeds its cost of capital. Growth amplifies this effect. A common analytical approach is to decompose return on equity, a common representation of return on capital, into its component ratios. The major component ratios are profit margin, asset turnover, and leverage; these should be the core of the financial perspective. Other important measures may be concerned with cash flow or working capital management. The customer perspective covers measures regarding corporate or brand awareness and image, customer satisfaction, customer retention, and customer profitability. They may be leading indicators of what the financial measures will subsequently reveal. This is despite of the fact that these measures lack mathematically precise relationship with creating shareholder value, unlike the financial measures. For example, increases in brand awareness typically precede increases in preference, which leads to sales growth. The internal perspective, on the other hand, is primarily concerned with the efficiency of the entire business system. It will be most effective when it views the firm as a system of business processes, all of which must be coordinated for the purpose of creating customer value. Compared to focusing narrowly on a metric such as inventory level, it may be more informative to analyze manufacturing cycle time with its implications for cost and reliability. Even if inventory level is critical, other internal processes or external demands may likely have influence on it. Order-to-delivery cycle time, response time for dealing with customer complaints, and total labor content are among the probable business processes considered to be important. Time is a key influence on many of these internal processes. And lastly, concerns on the adaptation effectiveness of the business to changing conditions are the primary interest of the innovation perspective. In other words, it tells you how well the firm can learn to create customer value more effectively with new products and services, and more efficiently based on new internal processes. Whereas the internal perspective focuses on continuous improvement exemplified by the learning curve or experience effects, and the customer perspective on learning about the business’ competitive position directly from the market, the innovation perspective requires a willingness to learn through experimentation and exploration. The key here is to learn from those experiences and improve on the central innovation processes. Important metrics include time from concept to market introduction, design for manufacturability, and value as a platform for future offerings. Performance measures define the limits placed on vehicle configurations and loadings. These limits provide the set of constraints under which vehicle designers/ manufacturers and transport operators will seek to maximize the fleet productivity involved in any particular task. Generally, this can be done by increasing the mass of goods carried per trip and/or the volume of goods carried per trip. It can also be done by decreasing the average travel time per trip, the average travel distance per trip, the number of trips required to complete the task, the average rate of fuel consumption of the vehicles and/or the vehicle loading and unloading times. Implementation of Performance Measures Organizations seem to be settling on a blend of the two, in which there is the balance between the customers’ expectation for outcome-related performance information with the company’s need for useful output data that has meaning to managers and decision-makers. While outcome measures may reflect what the customer sees and expects in the way of performance in a more precise manner, the role of government institutions such as Department of Transportation (DOT), as a long-term conservator and owner of the system demands a broad range of measure types.  In addition to system outcome expressed in terms with which the customer can readily identify, DOTs need to measure the efficiency of their programs as well as their progress on fronts that are not readily visible to the public. Customers are perceived to be focused on programs with near-term, visible impact and to under-value long-term investments in underlying system integrity and maintenance.  Whether this is true in a certain state or region should be confirmed through surveys, but regardless, planners and engineers do recognize the importance of balancing the customer imperatives with longer-term system preservation requirements. Use of performance data requires an evolutionary approach to the process. There appears to be a natural progression or trend within some agencies using performance data to proceed from detailed, technical or system management applications to more strategic, business-planning applications. Several DOTs with significant experience in application of performance measures are moving towards true multimodal applications. This created added challenges to data collection and maintenance, since different owners and operators are involved than just the state DOT. Performance targets are the ones becoming more dominant. It is the identification of a desired level of achievement on a specific performance measure by a particular date or period of time elapsed. The use of performance targets helps to identify “performance gaps” which can then be linked to business planning and budgeting. Unlike the use of continuous but non-specific improvement goals over time, it does exactly the opposite. In terms of the measures of mobility, there is particular interest here. Also, there exists a more limited hands-on experience in developing and using such measures. For instance, organizations need to be sure on defining what mobility means to their managers, decision-makers, and/or customers. They report that mobility takes on many different connotations depending upon the audience. It may even incorporate different characteristics which are extra optional. It may include characteristics such as accessibility and reliability. Since the DOT is often not be the direct operator of some of the modes, and thus will not be the owner of the data, further difficulties will arise on both the questions and the answers. This happens when mobility is to be measured across multiple modes. There is also considerable interest in mobility indices. That is, aggregated measures that considers several different components of mobility rolled-up into a single measure or index.  In spite of this, opinions were divided, as to whether single indices are appropriate for describing mobility, and perhaps for other system focus areas as well.  Mobility may be particularly resistant to meaningful indexing, because it is a complex concept and one that is measured in such a wide variety of ways in different states.  More states seem to have pursued development of indexes in other system areas such as safety, system condition, and maintenance, than in mobility.         Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Case Study of Kellya’s Transport (International)

Case Study of Kellyâ Case Study of Kellyâ€™s Transport (International) plc. The case study was about Kelly’s Transport (I...

EXCHANGE OPINIONS ABOUT PROBLEMS OF TRANSPORT IN THEIR HOME CITY

Classroom Management in a Group Discussion   INTRODUCTION             Learning is about how we perceive, understand and make meanings about the world ( 1997, p.2). It may involve mastering theoretical principles, understanding proofs, remembering based-on-fact information, acquiring methods, techniques and approaches, identification, reasoning, debating ideas, or developing behavior appropriate to specific situations. These aftermaths are believed to be the by-products of teaching. Every teacher aims to impart knowledge, train students, bring out the best in them, and share relative characteristics essential to the growth and development as a mature and productive individual.             In attaining such objectives, the teacher starts in the classroom setting. The day-to-day activities present in the teaching and learning process is the means in which every student can learn and explore the positive as well as negative sides of things, places, characters, and circumstances. The teacher utilizes several techniques in imparting the essential information to his/her students. Among these techniques in teaching include presentations, lecture, case studies, experiments, debates and oral argumentations, series of examination – written or oral, and even group discussion. Theses methods utilized by the teacher throughout the learning experience aid the students in assimilating and applying the underlying principles.             This paper aims to provide answers to issues involved in the teaching strategy and classroom management. Specifically, this tackles the skills needed by the teacher in managing classroom discussions on a definite topic and manner of application. The exact topic to be discussed is the problems of the transport system in Hong Kong. The manner of application involved in the teaching strategy is group discussion.   HONG KONG’S TRANSPORT SYSTEM: a Brief Summary             Hong Kong’s transport system is among the world’s best and highly sophisticated transport service – both in private and public sectors.  Comparing it to leading cities in the world, the transport service of the city is relatively efficient and more affordable (). There are several types of transportation present in the city. Among these are buses and public light buses, taxis, private cars, railway or trams, airplanes, ferries, gondola and even lifts, escalators, and moving sidewalks. Due to the geographic location, economic and trade considerations, and predetermined needs of the people, Hong Kong’s transport service is various. However, with some uncontrollable limitations and human restrictions, there are several issues in connection to the service. There are also issues on streets, railways, ports and harbours, airports and heliports, bridges and tunnels, and the “Octopus Card” to be tackled. The existing problems of the transport service of the city are the main agenda of the group discussion.               Further, with the specified topic above, the problem of the teacher is how to have an effective process of teaching utilizing the group discussion method. Hence, the following are suggested actions to be taken to manage the situation. Bearing in mind the kind of style to be utilized, the linguistic preparation that is appropriate to the method are written lesson plan, printed supplementary materials and visual aids (e.g. picture, multi-media presentation, etc.) The teacher must plan the best materials to use in the group discussion. Aside from the detailed lesson plan or outline for the class activity, s/he should provide printed material or visual aids that can stimulate and form the ideas of the students. The teacher may also prepare several questions that will be picked by each member of the group and try to answer/discuss it for the whole class.             Further, organizing is a tedious as well as complex task for the teacher. However there are some ways in which s/he can lessen the burden.       As stated, with the presence of the lesson plan that serves as the blueprint of the learning experience, the teacher will follow the intended actions noted in the plan. In this case, s/he may divide the class into several groups. Three groups are fair enough to draw out a lively and fruitful exchange of ideas among the members of the class. The teacher will allow the students to choose among themselves a leader that will represent the group.             On typical learning situation, the teacher will always base his/her organization and implementation of ways and means from his/her detailed lesson plan. Sticking to his/her original plan will not cause any trouble to the process. In particular instances wherein several considerations are present, the teacher may adjust his/her original plan but be sure that the objectives must be achieved.             On the other hand, stimulating interest in a topic is another challenge to the mentor. An effective step done to stimulate desire and attention of students is a guarantee for a lively and productive discussion. Traditionally, the most popular style to stimulate interest in a specific topic is by posing an intriguing question. The teacher may ask the students the following questions: -          If the transport system of Hong Kong is sophisticated and among the best services in Asia or even the world, it is impossible that you don’t observed, see, heard, and experience several inconveniences with regards to the service. Basing in to your own knowledge, what are some flaws that you observed, seen, heard, or experienced in connection to it?   -          If you are to be given a chance to ride/drive any means of transportation in the city, what is it? Why? Aside from posing such queries, the teacher may show a multi-media presentation of some aspects of the transport system of the city. S/he can add some situations that will arouse the interest and will allow the contemplation of ideas among the members of the class. In every classroom setting, due to the fact that it is a diverse environment of individuals who possesses distinct characters and behaviors, shy students exist. The teacher, being the manager in the classroom is faced with the goal of lessening such shyness and encourage the student to participate in class. S/he holds the task to encourage the participation of every student. Before the end of the session, the teacher must see to it that everyone in the class shared, imparted, talked, and learned. There are instances that shy students are present in the classroom. To encourage them to express their views, the teacher might utilize the following suggestions: -  Maintaining a democratic environment and projecting a friendly approach in the learning setting is a way that will initiate reaction to a shy student. - Asking anybody who wants to air, share, or express his/her thought is another way. Freedom to speak serves as a motivating factor. - Sometimes, the mentor can also utilize reward in forms of additional points or any incentive. However, it should be used in moderation. - The last resort of the teacher is to call the shy student and ask him/her a question in the most accommodating manner possible.   In the same manner, if shy students exist, the opposite (dominant kinds) also exist. Obviously, dominant students tend to monopolize very given class activity. Dealing with such kinds of students is a dilemma to a teacher as well as to co-students. Since the style of teaching on this case is group discussion, the leader of the group should assign every member to have a specific time to share, argue, explicate, and tell the class his/her point. The teacher will still be the one to initiate the activity. S/he is the moderator. In every given statement by the members of the group, the teacher may sort out or derive some follow-up or new questions about the subject. By doing so, there is an opportunity given for everyone to speak their thoughts and ideas. On regular classroom setting, prioritize the idea of discipline ( 1999, p.4. The best thing to do on this certain instance is to let the dominant student speak first. Asking him/her to be the first one to state all his/her thoughts, ideas, and concerns to the class is a starting and immediate action to lessen his/her dominance. When there are questions posed to be answered, the teacher should encourage the raising of hands. Lifting of hands is another way that the teacher may use to acknowledge someone’s willingness to speak. If the teacher can see same hands throughout the discussion, s/he can state the phrase, “give chance to others” in the friendliest manner possible.             Classroom organization is another foundation of effective teaching-learning experience. It is the task of the teacher to select the management style applicable to the given situation. As initially stated, the teacher may divide the class into three groups. After the introduction of the lesson, the teacher will ask some questions that will lead to the group discussion. As the moderator, the teacher will ask each group to list down existing and present problems of the transport system of the city. Due to the diverse types of the services in the transport system, the teacher may ask each member of the group to think a particular problem in a specified type such as buses and public light buses, taxis, private cars, railway, airplanes, ferries, gondola and even lifts, escalators, and moving sidewalks. Issues on streets, ports and harbours, airports and heliports, bridges and tunnels, and the “Octopus Card” must be tackled.             After giving them sufficient time, the discussion may begin. Everyone is given a chance to state one problem present in the specific type of transportation. It is up to the decision of the teacher to finished the presentation of problems then followed by the solutions or vice versa. However, to make it more interactive and lively, the presentation may be in a form of role playing – a state administrators meeting.             Basing it to the style and method of teaching used, the role of the teacher in this activity is to primarily act as the facilitator of learning. S/he is the moderator of the activity. Maintaining unity among the members of the class is also one of her/his role. Due to the personal differences of everyone, there is a possible risk of conflict of ideas and interests, hence, the teacher must control or prevent this to happen. Keeping order in the classroom is a teacher’s greatest concern ( 1999, p. 13). At the end of the session, the teacher must provide a definite and acceptable generalization of the lesson for the day and taking into consideration the real intent or objectives of the teaching and learning experiences.     CONCLUSION                         Cliché as it may sound but the reality of teaching as the noblest profession remains true even these contemporary times. Because people by nature are engaged in continuous learning and life as a whole is a learning experience, teaching will always be present to every cycle of an individual’s life. Teaching and learning are often intertwined. There are several aspects that will attest to such generalization but at the same time there are also some considerations that do not fully comply with the facts it presents. There is no complete process of teaching and learning if students are not present in the course of action. Ultimately, the goal of teaching as well as learning is the acquisition of knowledge that is essential for personal development and human survival as a whole. The main goal of every learning experience is to provide a collection of information that are worthy of knowing and is applicable in the daily encounters of living. Teaching is a career, profession, vocation, and a process as well. Learning is deemed to be a by-product of teaching among students. Students are the subject of teaching and learning. The knowledge acquired through education is essential for survival. Thus, what are worth knowing are the facts that will greatly help to the personal maturity and betterment of living. People are unique and such uniqueness results to various beliefs and principles. But what is essential is the reality that no matter how diverse we are, we are one in the pursuit of learning and knowledge acquisition. The teacher utilizes various styles and strategies in teaching. To this instance, s/he uses the group discussion method. Taking into consideration the pertinent guidelines of the said method, the teacher must be fully prepared when s/he starts to teach. The challenge to maintain an orderly and conducive environment for learning must be achieved. Accepting the varied ideas of the student and uniting them as one is another work that needs extra attention and effort. A good teacher must encourage shy students to participate in class. S/he must impart the lesson of self-discipline to dominant student as well. In addition, the best teachers know what are the best kinds of approach to be used in sharing knowledge to his/her students. Thus, a teacher is always an inspiration. As we grow and develop, learning does not stop. As a matter of fact, learning does not stop within the four corners of the classroom. The teaching that the teachers imparted to every student is a gift of knowledge. Thus, learning and teaching will serve its ultimate purpose – education for growth and development. And the teacher is the best person that will help to facilitate such. Truly, teaching is the world’s noblest profession.   References   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

EXCHANGE OPINIONS ABOUT PROBLEMS OF TRANSPORT IN THEIR HOME CITY

Classroom Management in a Group Discussion INTRODUCTION Learning is about how we perceive, understand and make meanings...

EXCHANGING OPINIONS

Exchanging Opinions on Transport Problems in Hong Kong   Appropriate Linguistic Preparation             Developing the skills of intermediate students in exchanging opinions in class requires the consideration of different areas of linguistic preparation such as comprehension of the subject for discussion, mastery of the language as tool of expression, the organization of ideas to express a cohesive thought, comprehension of the ideas expressed by other students, listening to opinions, and responding to the opinions of others. The continuous and interrelated processes of language comprehension, vocabulary organization and thought expression sums up the linguistic preparation process. Being prepared in these different areas increases the propensity of the target participants to be involved in the exchange of ideas and learn from the process. (, 1996)             Language comprehension refers to a uniform level of understanding that the participants have of words, sentences, ideas, and different modes of expression. Comprehension involves both the understanding words and appreciation of the thought and emotions expressed by these words. This process enables a person to receive accurately the message that another person has sent in order to respond appropriately. Vocabulary organization involves the mastery of the process of mixing different words in various orders to express different ideas. Organization of vocabulary is important in sending out the intended message since different word orders may correspond to a different message relative to intentions.  Thought expression focuses more on the delivery or articulation of vocabulary in a manner that corresponds with the intended message. This involves the proper use and expression of punctuation marks to indicate whether the statement is factual, questioning, or opposing. This is important in order to send the correct message and receive the appropriate response. (, 1997)   Organization of the Exchange of Ideas               Different means of organizing the exchange of ideas are available depending upon the purpose of the activity. In facilitating the exchange of ideas among a group of intermediate students on the problems in transport in Hong Kong, the appropriate purpose is to illicit information sharing in relation to their experiences with the traffic congestion in the city. The goal of the exchange of ideas is to find similarities and differences in the experiences of the students on traffic congestion so that they can learn language through practice and appreciate the process of exchanging opinions.   Stimulating Interest in the Exchange of Ideas             Drawing the interest of participants in an activity for the exchange of ideas depends upon how much the participants can relate to the topic. Simulating interest of intermediate students requires directing the exchange in a manner that students can relate to the topic. Asking the participants to express their personal experiences ensures a comfortable atmosphere for the exchange of ideas. Using a topic that students can relate to also minimizes the dual challenge that students have in expressing ideas about a topic that they are not familiar with and using a particular mode of expression such as English that includes the consideration of usage rules. Encouragement of Shy Participants             Individuals differ in the scope of their comfort zones in exchanging ideas. In a given group, the expressiveness of the members differs. There are very open students with opinions on every aspect of the discussion but there are also reserved students who express their opinions only upon being called to express an idea. Encouraging the participation of shy students necessitates the determination of the limit of the comfort zone of the students and the reasons for the reservations. After knowing these, the student should be assured that it is fine to express ideas by ensuring that all the participants are respectful of the opinions of others and the exchange is facilitated to assure complete understanding. Responding to ideas through feedback and remarks assures students that their opinions are heard and understood and the information they shared is appreciated.   Handling Monopoly of Activity by Dominant Students             While participation is encouraged in the activity for the exchange of opinions, it is imperative that all members of the group participate in order to ensure that all the opinions of the participants are obtained and represented in discovering the similarities and differences in their experiences of traffic congestion. The activity should be facilitated so that it will not be monopolized by dominant students. This is made by asking all participants to share their opinions, listing the general thought of the opinions expressed and asking comments on these ideas after all have spoken. This ensures that all participants express their ideas and they can respond to comments on their experiences.   Teacher’s Role in the Exchange of Ideas             The teacher facilitates the exchange of ideas with the purpose of ensuring understanding of the topic by all participants, securing the participation of all members of the group, and directing the flow of ideas and responses towards a meaningful exchange of opinions. The teacher also provides an introduction of the activity and the topic; and informs the students of the purpose and goals of the activity   Organizing the Classroom               Exchanging opinions among intermediate students requires the organization of the classroom to make it conducive to the activity. Instead of the normal classroom setting where students sit behind each other all facing the teacher, the chairs can be moved to make a circle so that the students face each other. Face-to-face conversation ensures that ideas are effectively exchanged because they can see the facial expression and the actual voicing of the words that enhances understanding of opinions. Speakers are also encouraged to express their ideas when they see that their listeners are receptive to their opinions. The less formal setting with the teacher sitting with the students in the circle also eliminates the possible anxieties and fear associated with the formal classroom structure.       References     Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

EXCHANGING OPINIONS

Exchanging Opinions on Transport Problems in Hong Kong Appropriate Linguistic Preparation Developing the skills of inte...

Road Congestion

Road Congestion / Traffic Congestion                         Road Congestion is a condition that is characterized by longer trip times, slow traffic flow, and increased queeing. Traffic jam is a colloquial term for a period of extreme traffic congestion. Road Congestion happens when: 1. there is  high traffic volume 2. construction 3. accidents/disasters 4. bad wheather condition.  There are several negative effects of Traffic Congestion. One negative effect is it wastes both the time of the motorists and passengers. It also causes tardiness. Many people especially those who need to arrive promtly for work, school or business meetings. Increased idling, acceleration, and braking cause fuel loss and air pollution. It also causes stress to the motorists and passengers alike.             Traffic congestion is a classic externality, especially pervasive in urban areas. The theoretical and empirical relationships governing it have been thoroughly studied. As a result, most urban economists and a growing number of other policy analysts agree that the best policy to deal with it would be some form of Congestion Pricing. Such a policy involves charging a substantial fee for operating a motor vehicle at times and places where there is insufficient road capacity to easily accommodate demand. The intention is to alter people’s travel behavior enough to reduce congestion. Three cities have seriously considered congestion pricing of a city center, each pioneering a different method of applying or implementing the concept. Singapore was the first to design and implement a practical, low-tech scheme for congestion pricing. Singapore’s initial system was very simple: the priced area is defined by a single cordon line surrounding the city center, the technology consists of paper windshield stickers, and enforcement is through visual inspection by traffic officers. Hong Kong was the pioneer in fully automated charging; its electronic road pricing (ERP) scheme was a flexible and comprehensive system involving multiple cordons. For Cambridge, England, the new concept was congestion-specific charging, an attempt to more closely approximate the theoretical ideal of congestion pricing by making the charge vary in real time in a manner reflecting the severity of congestion actually encountered while inside the priced area. Only one of these systems is operational. Singapore’s Area License Scheme (ALS) was inaugurated in 1975 and still operates today; the city has recently inaugurated an electronic system to replace its manual charging and enforcement. Hong Kong’s ERP scheme was subjected to extensive technological field trials as well as exhaustive desk studies for prediction and evaluation, but was withdrawn due to public opposition. Cambridge has also been the site of a technological field trial but the scheme was abandoned when a new and unsupportive council came to power in 1993. Singapore’s ALS is part of an extremely stringent set of policies designed to restrict automobile ownership and use in this crowded island city-state of three million people. The national government chose the ALS over conventional road tolls and higher parking charges because space for toll stations was lacking in the city center and it thought higher parking charges would be ineffective in the face of heavy through traffic and numerous chauffeurdriven cars. The size and structure of the fee has varied over the years. When first implemented in 1975, the fee was imposed only on vehicles entering the restricted area during the morning peak period. There have been both intellectual and practical developments since Pigou first, put forward the idea of road pricing. The basic concept is deceptively easy; apply the price mechanism in the same way as it applies elsewhere. When there is high demand prices should be high to deter excessive use. Intellectually, the key question is one of defining the appropriate price in what is often a complex set of economic and technical circumstances. The key issue from a practical point of view is one of operationalizing the concept, not only in terms of developing technically efficient charging mechanisms but also in gaining political acceptance as a valid policy instrument.             Another innovation is the use of Inteligent Transportation Systems (ITS). Intelligent transportation systems–formerly called intelligent vehicle-highway systems (IVHS)–are information technologies that, when implemented in vehicles, on roadways, or centrally, can lead to vast savings in journey time, improved driver safety and convenience, and significant reductions in energy consumption and pollution. Among the capabilities of current and future ITS technologies are the following: 1.  Traffic can be managed on the main roadways of major metropolitan areas through  control of road junctions and access to major routes,  rapid detection of and response to incidents (e.g., accidents and heavy congestion), and communication of advice to drivers and passengers about traffic conditions. In addition, automatic vehicle identification and toll collection open the way to variable pricing of roadway access (i.e., pricing based on road congestion).  2.  A wide variety of information systems can be available to travelers (e.g., route guidance, nearby restaurants and other traveler facilities, travel time to the airport). Drivers and passengers can receive certain information by means of either eye-level “heads-up” displays or voice synthesizers installed within the vehicle.  3.  Drivers can be automatically alerted to the proximity of other vehicles or obstacles. Under some advanced ITS technologies, automatic steering and intervehicle spacing control both facilitate collision avoidance and dramatically increase highway throughput.  4.  Commercial vehicle operators can receive regulatory documents (e.g., permits and registrations) for multiple states in a single transaction. They can also undergo automatic weight checking without having to stop.  5.  Continuous monitoring of the physical state of the road itself–as well as of bridges, tunnels, and the like–with early warnings of deterioration or structural weaknesses can be carried out through a network of probes embedded in the physical infrastructure.  The enjoyment, comfort, and convenience of driving should escalate considerably as ITS systems are implemented. It is suggested that reduced stress will accrue from safety systems because of the lower probability of colliding with another vehicle. Clear directions from route guidance systems, as well as reduced congestion and travel times, will also minimize stress. Commuters will be the primary beneficiaries of these improvements, but recreational drivers will gain as well. There is an expectation, borne out by travel studies, that drivers would be willing to pay to avoid routes having unpredictable travel times. This reduction in trip duration and congestion would also alleviate stress. It is even possible that in the long run people may choose to keep their total travel time constant and increase the length of their trips to work or leisure activities, thereby gaining more options and flexibility. When combined with mass transit, ITS will enable urban and suburban travelers to make their trips on the basis of accurate, real-time information regarding travel conditions and bus and subway schedules. It will also provide them up-tothe-minute information when disruption threatens their usual routines. For example, automatic vehicle location will provide real-time information on systemwide departure times and transit vehicle locations. This information can be communicated to the transit provider and ultimately to the transit users at bus stops, shopping centers, places of employment, and other centers. Implementation of interactive communication between user and provider of transportation will occur in the final stages of advanced trip planning. Passengers will be able to make and change reservations from their homes based on realtime information regarding schedule, fares, and availability. ITS will elevate car pooling to new levels of sophistication and efficiency, which will enhance its acceptability. When automated highways are fully implemented, which is not expected to occur until well into the twenty-first century, they will result in vastly increased throughput and reduced driving fatigue. Finally, electronic driving aids will improve the quality of life for the elderly and disabled driver population by maintaining their mobility as the aging process or handicap reduces their physical abilities. The major types of traffic management systems, which have been a focal point of intelligent highway development for the past thirty years or so, are traffic-flow measuring and signal-light controlling mechanisms. Newer systems, some of which are already operational, provide (1) real-time monitoring of traffic and incidents; (2) continuous solution and optimization of problems and predicted problems, by relaying instructions to control devices; (3) signs–uniform in size, readability, and logic–that display traffic information; (4) area-wide traffic jurisdiction coordination; (5) coordination of emergency vehicles and incidents; (6) ramp metering; and (7) automatic vehicle identification/toll collection. The latter two systems offer the most potential to produce improvement in traffic flow. Ramp metering, whereby automatic signals regulate the access of cars at the on-ramp, has been a successful technology in relieving collision risk, which research has shown increases by 150 percent when vehicles in the same traffic stream have speeds differing by more than 10 miles per hour. Where it is implemented, ramp metering has reduced freeway accidents by approximately 30 percent while substantially increasing throughput. A strategy that is frequently used in combination with ramp metering is a high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) bypass lane. This is a parallel ramp or lane reserved for HOVs that bypasses the meter. It provides an incentive for using vans and carpools.             Automatic vehicle identification (AVI), because it can provide information for such valuable functions as automated toll collection, freight tracking, and exact traffic conditions, is the segment of traffic surveillance systems that probably produces the greatest benefit. With AVI, a radio or infrared sensor at a fixed point recognizes a tag that uniquely identifies that vehicle. For toll collection, a car passes through the sensor without stopping and a computer uses the identification to debit the driver’s prepaid account, thereby relieving a potential focus of congestion. AVI also makes possible automatic road pricing or congestion pricing. This process identifies vehicles and charges tolls based on the time of day or some other variable, such as number of vehicle occupants, to control demand for roads during peak hours. These disincentives for peak-hour travel and single-occupant vehicles encourage wider use of car pooling, mass transit, and alternative work hours. Traveler information systems feed traffic and safety information to the traveler to enhance his or her traveling efficiency. This information is either stored in the vehicle itself or can be obtained by means of interactive communication with a traffic control center. Route guidance is the most prevalent application of traveler information systems. These systems are a major leap beyond the typical information currently available to drivers in their vehicles, such as vehicle speed, state of the engine, and sporadic radio reports from local stations about selected traffic and weather conditions.                         Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Road Congestion

Road Congestion / Traffic Congestion Road Congestion is a condition that is characterized by longer trip times, sl...

Road Congestion

Road Congestion

Road Congestion / Traffic Congestion Road Congestion is a condition that is characterized by longer trip times, sl...