Research Articles Base: Learning / Teaching Strategies

English Studies for Language Teaching

English Studies for Language Teaching   Introduction             The study of the English language is one of the most tedious and complicated task one will ever do. It involves not only the basic knowledge of learning and knowing the meaning of words, arranging them into an orderly sentence, phrase, or paragraph, and communicating, but it more importantly involves proper pronunciation and grammar. In today’s generation, the English language is regarded as the global language, which is used by different peoples around the world, belonging to different fields and expertise. Along with the development and use of the English language is the development of science and technology, which has been depended upon by many individuals. Thus, in this sense, knowing and learning the English language has become the core of the overall major development of different societies around the globe. More importantly, learning the English language also involves effective and appropriate teaching that would benefit all the students. With this, this paper aims to discuss and analyze key concepts and issues related to three different major areas in the study of the English language, which includes Phonetics and Phonology, Psycholinguistics and Second Language Acquisition, and Literature and Language Arts. After the discussion of related concepts and issues from each three major areas, a number of practical and relevant examples in the teaching and learning of English will also be provided and discussed.   Part A – Concepts and Issues   Phonetics and Phonology               Both the concepts of phonetics and phonology are separate studies under the development of the English language, where phonetics deals with the production of sounds involved in human speech without knowledge of the language being spoken, while phonology deals with the patterns of sounds in human speech, either within a specific language or in different languages ( 2007).  Thus, both of these studies involve the proper use of consonants and vowels in the English language. In relation to these studies are two of the most important concepts related to the study of phonetics and phonology, namely, stress and intonation, as they provide the proper pronunciation of words, being the basis of its use in forming sentences, phrases or paragraphs. Stress or also known as accent is the emphasis or the weight given to certain syllables in words, and is referred to as the rhythm of the language. It has been stated that in pronunciation, stress refers to the word, part of a word, or a single word in a group of words, which receives the most emphasis, and this emphasis or weight is the result of loudness, pitch, length of the syllable, or a combination of the three variables. In learning English as a second language, stress is often a difficult concept, as its complexity is directly related to the variability of pronunciation in the English language. However, stress can be regarded as either fixed-word or fixed-phrase stress patterns, depending on a particular language. The use of stress refers to placing emphasis on particular syllables in specific words, or placing emphasis on a particular word in itself, thus, it is possibly and highly influenced by the length of word, standards of pronunciation, formality of the speaking situation, and dialects ( 1998).             The stress or emphasis in particular syllables in a word depends upon its level or degree, being primary and secondary, as commonly believed in the study of the English language. The primary stress is the stronger emphasis placed on a syllable, while the secondary stress is the weaker degree placed upon a syllable in the pronunciation of a word. The application of the degree or levels of stress depends is important in three types of words, namely, long words that have any number of syllables prior to the primary stress, a number of homographs, and compound words (2006). In a word, the primary stress is indicated with a raised vertical line at the beginning of the stressed variable, while the secondary stress is indicated with a lowered vertical line at the beginning of the variable (1997). The primary stress is exhibited in the word apple [‘apple], and the secondary stress is exhibited in the word yellow [‘yellow] ( 1998). The level of stress in a word also depends on its placement or patterns, which refers to either a word stress or a phrasal stress. In a word stress or lexical stress, the stress pattern falls usually on the same syllable of a given word, while in an English word with three or more syllables, the word stress relies on the level of stress, whether primary or secondary. In terms of phrasal stress, the first element of a compound is stressed, instead of the final element, and this is being observed in terms of having two words in a single compound ( 2007). Stress in monosyllabic words is easier to understand compared to polysyllabic words, as the level and pattern of stress varies. The English language is said to be a free-stress language or having movable stress, as being a feature of the individual word. The stress of every word relates to its origin, word class, and presence of suffixes ( 2005).             In studying the stress in words, it would be relevant to take note of the differences between the English and the Chinese language, particularly in speaking the Cantonese language. In comparison, there are 24 consonants and 5 vowels in the English language, and 19 consonants and 8 vowels in Cantonese. There are six plosive or distinctive stops in both the English and Cantonese language; however, in Cantonese, there are no voiced plosives, such that all stops or plosives are voiceless, compared to the English language wherein /p, t, k/ and voiceless and /b, d, g/ are voiced (2000; 2000). In terms of vowels, The English language has two close front vowels, two close back vowels, and two open back vowels, while the Cantonese language has only one close front vowel, one close back vowel, and one open back vowel (2000). Because of the difference in the characteristics of the consonants and vowels of both languages, the stresses of words also differ, thus, emphasizing the differences in learning English as a second language. In addition to such differences is the fact that English has stress-timed rhythm, implying that stressed syllables tend to occur at relatively regular intervals whether separated by unstressed syllables or not. On the other hand, Cantonese has a syllable-timed rhythm, where all syllables, stressed or not tend to occur at regular intervals, and the time between stressed syllables vary in proportion to the number of stressed syllables (2000). Thus, these differences can be regarded as an important factor to take note, especially in learning English as a second language, for it would be hard to shift the stress of words from one language to another.             Another relevant concept in the study of phonetics and phonology is the study of intonation, which refers to the use of the pitch of the voice to convey meaning ( 2000). In description, intonation refers to the musical features of speech or as the melody of speech, thus, it helps to express the attitude of the speaker and contributes to the actual meaning of a specific utterance, being important in semantic functions ( 2007). Moreover, intonation is important in expressing our attitude, in structuring our messages in communicating with others, and in focusing attention on particular parts of what we are conveying (2006). It has been reported that intonation in the English language is organized in units, which was referred to by Halliday as tone groups. A tone group is defined as one unit of information, one block in the message that the speaker is communicating, and can be of any length. In addition, in understanding a tone group, it is said that the particular meaning that a speaker wishes to convey many make it necessary to split a single clause into two or more tone groups, or to combine two or more clauses into one tone group ( 2007). Thus, to be able to convey a message through tone groups, it must be arranged in patterns that are distributed throughout speech, and is termed tonality. With tonality, the speaker divides the stream of spoken words into groups, which reveals to the listener how to mentally organize the information. It follows a predictable course, with tone groups corresponding to grammatical clauses (2007). In essence and simple terms, tonality refers to the pattern of arrangement of different tone groups that form a clause or phrase, and are combined to convey the message of the speaker to the listener. Another important element of intonation in the English language is tonicity, which is defined as the placement of tonic prominence. A tonic prominence, or also called the tonic syllable is a place of prominence that the speaker seeks to carry the most pronounced pitch change and seeks to mark as most important. The tonic syllable carries the burden of “new information” in the clause and its normative place is on the last word in the clause (2007). In addition, tonicity emphasizes the concept of a tonic stress, the nucleus, or the intonation unit that has one peak of stress, and is received by the tonic syllable. Tonic stress and tonicity is often used in stresses such as referring, proclaiming, and reporting utterances ( 2001). To be able to convey information and message, tone groups are being used. Both tonality and tonicity are being used in order to convey messages, as tonality refers to the arrangement of tone units or groups themselves, while tonicity refers to the content of the tonic group. In this sense, both tonicity and tonality is being dependent upon tone or pitch contours, in order to specify the personality and emotion of the speaker. It has been stressed out that tone interacts with tonality or the distribution of tone groups, and tonicity or the placement of tonic prominence in order to create meaning in English intonation. Halliday identified five basic tones, namely, falling, high rising or falling-rising (pointed), low rising, falling-rising (rounded), and rising-falling (rounded) (2007). In this sense, it can be understood that tone is the use of pitch in language to distinguish words, to express emphasis, contrast, and emotions ( 2007). Thus, it serves to be the choice of the utterance of the speaker, taking into consideration if the utterance is new or common ground with the listener. In terms of differences, the Chinese language is a tone language, where every morpheme-word unit in its citation form has a lexical tonal pattern. The tones are distinctive, such that a change in tone results in a change in lexical meaning. On the other hand, English is an intonation language, wherein a change in tone will not result in a change of lexical meaning but may show a difference in attitude ( 2000). Thus, these three aspects in intonation interact effectively and appropriately to be able to convey messages and information, in the desire to communicate. In understanding the communicative value of intonation, the Discourse intonation (DI) theory must be understood, as it supposes intonation to play a crucial part in the pursuit of communicative purpose with regard to communicative value. In this regard, selection of intonation by both the speaker and the listener is given focus, by considering their common ground, such as their shared awareness, extended to a wider context of the mutual understanding of their society. In essence, the communicative value of intonation depends upon the interaction of tonicity, tonality and tone, as the speaker chooses the order of words, emphasis and pitch in showing special significance in a particular intonation in preference to another, keeping the listener in mind (2006). With this, both stress and intonation as features of spoken language, and consonants and vowels as language sounds are linked together in the aim of humans to express their speech, feelings, and emotions through the use of language. Both the features and sounds are incorporated in human speech, as they represent even the simplest emotion or feelings deemed to be expressed by humans. Thus, the combination of sounds and features of speech forms words, phrases, and sentences that enable individuals to communicate. The use of such words is in turn, based on stresses and intonations, which enable humans to distinguish a particular word, feeling, or emotion from one another. These aspects are important to take note, most especially in teaching the English language, for the mentors or teachers must be particularly aware of the use of stresses and intonations in words, phrases and sentences, which would become the basis of learning of students. In this sense, the effective and appropriate learning of the English language depends on the extent of the knowledge of its teachers.        Psycholinguistics and Second Language Acquisition             This larger concept in the English language emphasizes two specific and important ideas in the history of language development – Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory and Krashen’s affective filter hypothesis. Vygotsky’s social constructivist theory suggests that cognitive skills and patterns of thinking are not only determined by innate factors, but are products of practiced activities in social institutions of the culture from which the individual developed and grew ( 2004). In essence, Vygotsky’s theory emphasizes that the society plays a vital role in shaping our individual history, thus, crucial in the molding and shaping of our thoughts. In the developing the minds and thoughts of individuals, language is the most important tool, as different information and knowledge are passed on to individuals through words. In his theory, he also stressed the idea of “zone of proximal development”, which refers to the difference between an individual’s capacity to solve problems on his own and one’s capacity to solve problems with assistance ( 2004). This idea supports the fact that an individual, particularly a child can perform activities with the help of someone else, and this person may take the role of a parent, teacher, instructor or peer who has been able to master that particular activity or function (2004). In this regard, it can be understood that learning is social in nature, as an individual is able to acquire knowledge, develop thoughts, and exhibit skills with the guidance of another individual or groups of individuals surrounding him or her, using a developed language. This can be also deemed similar to the acquisition of a second language, as an individual learns and adapts to the use of a specific language, particularly to the English language depending on the support, knowledge, and encouragement of an individual’s mentors. In relation to this is Krashen’s affective filter hypothesis, which states that in the process of second language acquisition, the individual’s attitude and perception plays a crucial role, as the person’s ability to acquire a second language depends on his or her opinions, positive or negative experiences, self-esteem, and motivation. In this hypothesis, personal negative perceptions, including anxiety, low self-esteem, and low motivation triggers the ‘filter’, thus, serving to block and prevent acquisition of the second language ( 2005).             A particular similarity can be perceived from the theory of Vygotsky and the hypothesis of Krashen, and this similarity features the significant involvement, role, and participation of the society in the acquisition of a second language of an individual. Both ideas emphasized the significant participation of the society and the members of society in the acquisition of a second language, as an individual would not be able to gain knowledge and information regarding the English language without the guidance and influence of the members of society, including family members, school members, and peers. The similarity of both ideas is that they stressed out the significance of having a supportive environment, which helps individuals to easily acquire knowledge on a second language, such as the English language. However, despite such a similarity, the theory of Vygotsky and the hypothesis of Krashen have a slight difference. It is true that both ideas emphasize the role of the society in second language acquisition, and including acquisition of norms, practices and beliefs being developed in a specific society or community. The hypothesis of Krashen points out that a positive outlook and attitude of an individual enables one to become more receptive in acquiring a second language, thus, completely disregarding the presence of a ‘filter’ that impedes second language acquisition. The difference with Vygotsky’s theory is that he did not specify any attitude or outlook on the part of the individual, which are essential in becoming receptive to second language learning, as Krashen did. In this sense, Vygotsky placed a bigger responsibility in the role of the society as a whole in the acquisition of a second language. On the contrary, Krashen placed a much bigger responsibility on the part of the individual, being more receptive in acquiring a second language. With these ideas in mind, it would be easier to acquire understanding on the relationship of the development and acquisition of a second language, and the development of an individual as an independent unit in the society or community. The development of an individual is dependent upon the development of the entire society, and thus, considered crucial in the acquisition of a second language. This individual and societal development is also related to the development and improvement of speech and language, which becomes bases for the application and use of stress and intonation in a language. This somehow emphasizes the fact that the differences in speaking the English and the Cantonese language are more cultural than linguistic ( 1991), as children acquire the tone and the meaning of speaking the Cantonese language through their environment. From this, the link between second language acquisition and phonetics and phonology can be observed, as the development and proper use of phonetics and phonology becomes the application of an effective second language acquisition that is dependent upon the shaping and molding of the society. As emphasized, the acquisition of the English language of students depends upon the knowledge and expertise of mentors or teachers, who also obtain their knowledge from the society, thus, simultaneously and continuously being shaped in order to effectively acquire the second language.      Literature and Language Arts             Literature and language arts have been a part of the development and improvement of the English language and other languages. The use of literature and language arts does not only indicate the success and richness of that particular language, but it also indicates the artistic capabilities and skills of individuals who have been responsible in its development and creativity. More often than not, when literature and language arts are mentioned, the most common ideas that most probably come to mind would include short stories, novels, poetry, prose, and other expressive literary artworks. Relevantly, these forms of literary works become the larger basis for the learning of students and teachers as well, not only confined in the four corners of the classroom, but in the larger picture of the society.             In literature and language arts, the terms protagonist, antagonist or foil, hero, and anti-hero are often mentioned and given emphasis. The term protagonist refers to the main figure of a piece of literature or drama, exhibiting the main role. The protagonist of the story can be the hero or even the antagonist, foil or anti-hero, where the term being referred to as the leading role in the literature. In literature and language arts, the protagonist or the hero is characterized as having the ability to change or evolve within the plot of the story. However, the protagonist of the story may not necessarily always be the hero, as the protagonist can also be the anti-hero of the literature. The whole literature would not be complete without the foil, the antagonist, or the anti-hero of the story, as the antagonist or anti-hero represents the obstacles or challenges that the protagonist must go through ( 2007). The creativity of the story involving the protagonist and antagonist depends upon the plot of the story and the ability of the characters to evolve, given the different situation unfolded in the literature. Each of these characters is featured in different forms of literature and language arts, and is given significance in the story depending on the type of genre. Both the protagonist and the antagonist of the story are presented in different genres in language arts, including fables and parables, epic and mock-epics, and comedy and black comedy. The evolution and change of the both types of characters thus depends on the plot of the story. Specifically, a parable is a short story, in prose or verse that may use comparison or analogy, which illustrates or teach truth, moral or religious lessons and principles. It differs from a fable, in which animals, plants, inanimate objects and forces of nature act as protagonists and antagonists in the story, as they assume speech and other powers exhibited by humans (2007). In comparison, an epic is a long, narrative poem, focusing on a serious subject, and centered on a heroic figure, while the mock epic is the satirical version of the epic, aiming to make the heroic figure in the epic look ridiculous by the incongruity. The heroic figure in both the epic and mock epic represents national, cultural and religious ideals, from where the fate of his or her people depends upon ( 2005). In both types of literature, the protagonist and the antagonist can be distinctly recognized, thus, evidently emphasizing their significance in the story and in the expression of the message of the whole literature. Other common forms of literature being used in the expression of language include the comedy and the black comedy. In a comedy, humor is being used to rouse laughter of the audience in general, while in the black comedy, serious subjects, such as death, murder, suicide, illness, terror, and crimes are treated in comedic or satirical ways to give it a lighter view (2007). In this form of literature, both the protagonist and the antagonist are also present, thus, making the plot of the story more exciting and interesting, as it is conceived to create misunderstandings or conflicts regarding the hero’s or anti-hero’s identity or social being (2007). Likewise, in the black comedy, serious and taboo subject matters are given emphasis and significance, thus, creating a conflict in both in the protagonist and antagonist of the story, and enable them to evolve.             These elements in literature and language arts are important to take note and are related and significant in learning the English language because they become the effective and useful mediums in expressing ideas, lessons, and other messages other individuals would like to share to the society. In this regard, the characters in different stories, particularly the protagonist and the antagonist reflect the real life situation of different individuals in the society. The use and the expression of literatures and the language arts is important in learning the English language because it serves to be a good teaching medium or method for audiences, readers and listeners, in their aim to understand words, expressions and use of English in practical situations. This also serves as tools for obtaining practical lessons and applications, which can be used in everyday life situations.  (2002) points out that for vocabulary building purposes, texts, whether spoken or written, have enormous advantages over learning words, as words loosely connected by topic may be easier to learn than more tightly connected lexical texts. Through literatures and language arts, individuals would be able to build their sense of humor, analysis, and critical thinking, as these literatures and works of art mirror real life situations and instances, which can be used as bases for the real life crises and problems. In addition, through reading or producing literatures and language arts, individuals are able to build their creativity using the English language, in their aim to express realities in a creative and artful way. This links or relates to the other two major areas previously discussed, as they all focus in the development of the English language, through practical use and application in everyday instances. In this regard, literature and language arts become the medium for learning and gaining knowledge on the application of stress and intonation on certain words of the English language. Through literature and language arts, the use of stress and intonation can be practiced and further developed. In terms of psycholinguistics and second language acquisition, literatures and language arts are useful and relevant means of developing and teaching the English language, as its use helps an individual further understand the use of the language through specific stories and examples.   Part B – Practical Applications in Teaching and Learning English               Primarily, the concepts of the use of stress and intonation is related in learning and teaching the English language, most especially in terms of its use in the Chinese society, particularly in Hong Kong. As previously stated, stress and intonation is important in the English language or any other form of language, as these two aspects determine how the word, phrase or sentence is expressed in the desire to convey messages and meaning, from the speaker to the listener. In this regard, both stress and intonation are significant in teaching and learning the English language to effectively convey and express the meanings of messages and emotions. In addition, stress and intonation gives life to the expression of words, and indicates the purpose of the speaker in expressing his or her ideas to the listener. Without stress and intonation, speaking or saying of words during conversation would be boring and dull, thus, with stress and intonation, expressing ideas and emotions would be more personal and humane.             The relevance and importance of stress and intonation in teaching and learning the English language can be further understood in using a specific example, which differentiates the use of both the English and the Chinese language. Proper stress and intonation in the English language must be properly known by the Chinese, as the stress in the syllables, use of word, and word formation in Chinese is different in the English language. In both Chinese and English, many words are formed by adding affixes to roots that carry lexical meanings. A particular example of this is placing a phonetic prefix lao to nouns in the Chinese language in forming words such as lao hu (tiger), lao shi (teacher), and lao ye (grandfather). This is similar in the English language as placing suffixes on nouns, such as the prefix al in forming words such as conditional, functional and national ( 2003). In this sense, the difference in the formation of words between the Chinese and the English language emphasizes the difference in the application of stress and intonation in the words depending on its use. Thus, because the use of the words in Chinese is totally different in the use of words in English, the pronunciation, emphasizing on the stress and intonation of the words also differs. In addition, because the formation of the words in Chinese is different in the English language, the number of syllables also differs, such as the word lao ye, corresponding to the word grandfather in English. In this particular word, the number of syllables changed, including the combination of two words to form a single word with a particular meaning. In this sense, this particular example becomes practical in addressing in teaching and learning the English language because one must be able to understand and put into consideration the differences of the use of both languages in practical situations. With this, the difference in the pronunciation and use of words in both languages must be first recognized, so as not to confuse language usage. Error comes in the use of the English language when one combines one language with another. Moreover, the difference in the stress and intonation in speaking the Chinese or Cantonese language in Hong Kong gives rise to the debate, whether a type of English in Hong Kong exists.  (2000) points out that the word or sense of the word must have some degree of currency and stability, either originating in the region concerned or be formally, semantically, or collocationally distinctive from usage elsewhere in the world. In the case of Hong Kong English, an additional problem arises that the items identified through the application of such criteria are not necessarily used, for certain words, such as Dim sum and short week are used in Hong Kong, but do not fit well with the description of Hong Kong English, as the language of Hong Kong English-speaking community as a whole ( 2000). With this, in teaching and learning the English language in Hong Kong or other Chinese societies, it would be best to always consult useful guides, such as dictionaries, English language books, and language professionals to ensure proper use of grammar and pronunciation, particularly of stress and intonation.             In the concepts of psycholinguistics and second language acquisition, teaching and learning of the English language becomes relevant and crucial as it emphasizes the significant role of an individual’s supportive environment, as in this case is the society or community of the individual from where he or she obtains knowledge and information from the world. In today’s generation, second language acquisition, particularly of learning and teaching the English language is not anymore confined in the four corners of the classrooms in academic institutions. The development and improvement of the different aspects in terms of science, technology, and communication has helped the process of second language acquisition becomes easier, as many uses the computers and the media as tools for teaching the English language. In relation to the ideas raised by Vygotsky and Krashen, which emphasized the role of the society in second language acquisition, is the practical application of their ideas in the realization of the significant contribution of the different forms of media in the learning and teaching of the English language. Nowadays, television shows and the use of the Internet have become part and parcel of the daily routines of individuals, most especially the younger generation. In this sense, the wrong usage in terms of the pronunciation and grammar in the English language can influence the larger population of viewers. A particular example of this influence is the development of Taglish or the combination of the Tagalog and the English language in the Philippines. The influence of the different forms of media in the Philippines, most importantly of famous television personalities strengthened and reinforced the use of Taglish in the Philippine society. This somehow affects the ability of learners to acquire the English language, for they combine the English words they use to the Tagalog context of the sentence, thus, not completely speaking the English language. This seems to be correct in some ways in terms of informal and casual conversations; however, sometimes used in formal conversations. In this regard, the society has placed substantial influence on the learning and teaching of the English language in the Philippine setting, as stressed by the ideas of Vygotsky and Krashen.             As previously discussed, the acquisition of a second language is relevantly related to the use of different literatures and language arts that encompasses different genres and forms of literatures. In this regard, reading and using a variety of forms of literatures and language arts reinforces and strengthens learning the English language. In the Chinese language, children are forced to master 3,500 Chinese characters to be able to spell Chinese words, indicate tones, and know variations of speech. However, in comparison to American English, only 27 letters of the alphabet must be known in order to form words ( 2001). In this sense, to be able to efficiently and appropriately teach and learn the English language, reading and using pieces of literature and language arts can be perceived very useful.  (2001) points out that learning to read builds on cognitive, linguistic and social skills, thus, having a good grasp of spelling-sound correspondences, as evidenced by the ability to sound out novel words. With this, it can perceived that allowing and exposing students to different literary works can enhance and develop their skills in learning the English language. In addition to this is the fact that effective reading instruction with the help of a variety of literary works can help teach children what they need to know about both the alphabetic principle and phonological awareness ( 2001). Thus, this points out the significant role of reading literary works in the development and awareness of students in terms of the use of stress and intonation of English words through the recognition of the alphabet. Moreover, reading literary works and texts, whether short of long texts, builds the vocabulary, as they display topically connected sets of words or lexical fields. Short texts are ideal for classroom use, since they can be subjected to intensive grammatical and lexical study, without overtaxing the attention or memory of learners, and they are also useful as preparation for independent reading and listening, including dealing with longer texts. They also provide useful models for student production, in the form of speaking and writing ( 2000). A specific application or example of this is the use of metaphorical texts, as they are prevalent in authentic texts, such that the foreign language learner can deal with them in facing words that carry several meanings (2004), especially in learning and teaching the English language. Metaphorical language allows one to express abstract and difficult concepts in concrete terms ( 2004), and can be encountered in different genres and forms of literature, such as in newspapers, magazines, and books. However, reading in itself is not enough to reinforce learning and acquisition of the English language. This is because along with reading literary works is the need for practice. One benefit of reading practice is that is supports comprehension ability, vocabulary growth, and spelling skill, including the knowledge of individual words. In addition, practice in reading brings about an increasing facility with words because it increases the quality of lexical representations (2001). With this, the student is able to develop fluency in reading, thus, developing his or her abilities in recognizing, using, and pronouncing English words. A practical application of this is infusing English subjects in the school curriculum, which becomes the reinforcement of the English language academically, aside from the influence of the use of English in the larger society. Infusing or integrating the English language in the curriculum of academic institutions is one helpful strategy as students become more exposed and knowledgeable in the English language. With this, students would have the chance to practice speaking, reading, and writing English, which would be helpful in developing and improving their cognitive, linguistic, and social skills simultaneously.   Conclusion                    This paper was able to discuss and specify several concepts and ideas related to three major aspects in learning and teaching the English language, namely, phonetics and phonology, psycholinguistics and second language learning, and literature and language arts. These three major aspects were shown to be linked together as one takes part in the development of the other, and becomes significant in the improvement of learning the teaching the English language. Stress and intonation in the phonetics and phonology is significant in the acquisition of English as a second language, depending on the influence and role the society plays in the development of the individual. The concepts and ideas expressed by Vygotsky and Krashen in terms of the acquisition of a second language emphasize the support of the individual’s environment in order to be able to efficiently acquire a specific language. With this, the use of pieces of literature and language arts becomes crucial, as an individual, most especially students must be practices and exposed to forms of literatures to reinforce learning the English language, which includes knowing the stress and intonation in words.             In terms of learning and teaching the English language, the major aspects discussed in this paper must be given emphasis and importance, as they serve as guide in the proper knowledge of the English language. With this, it would be necessary to remember two important points in relation to this discussion. The first is to remember that ‘practice makes perfect’, in terms of gaining knowledge of the proper pronunciation and grammar of English. Practicing reading, writing and speaking English underlies continuous research and study, which would be essential in guidance. The second important point to remember is to seek guidance from English teachers or instructors, including books and reading materials. However, this involves critical and analytical use of sources, which are essential skills to use in using different sources of information.               Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

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English Studies for Language Teaching Introduction The study of the English language is one of the most tedious and comp...

Advantages and Disadvantages in Using ICT as a Primary Educational Tool for Foreign Languages

Advantages and Disadvantages in Using ICT as a Primary Educational Tool for Foreign Languages               ICT, otherwise known as Information Communication Technology is widely spreading around the globe as integral parts, not only of teaching, but in other aspects of human life as well. According to the Victorian Essential Learning Standards, “Information and communications technology (ICT) is the hardware and software that enables data to be digitally processed, stored and communicated. ICT can be used to access, process, manage and present information; model and control events; construct new understanding; and communicate with others. “             In the context of learning, ICT may be referred to as a necessary tool for any student who desires further learning. The following aims may be attributed to the learning context of ICT, Ø  “develop new thinking and learning skills that produce creative and innovative insights Ø  develop more productive ways of working and solving problems individually and collaboratively Ø  create information products that demonstrate their understanding of concepts, issues, relationships and processes Ø  express themselves in contemporary and socially relevant ways Ø  communicate locally and globally to solve problems and to share knowledge Ø  Understand the implications of the use of ICT and their social and ethical responsibilities as users of ICT. “ () Many advantages have been attributed to the use of ICT in learning. The focus of the paper shall be the advantages and disadvantages of the usage of ICT in the learning and teaching of foreign languages. Discussion             Advantages in the use of ICT are quite numerous to date. We shall discuss the advantages individually. According to the BECTA ICT research, the following benefits can be achieved both in teaching and learning foreign languages with the use of ICT. Ø  Digital resources enable students to maximize learning though their own pace (2004). Due to the fact that ICT involves software and hardware for maximization of learning, it would be relatively easy for students to read and reread the information relayed by the software. Ø  Digital and virtual resources can be slowed down to enable further understanding. Since it is difficult to be learning languages which one may not be familiar to, it would be ideal to slow down or to repeat the lesson to be fully grasped by the student. ICT answers that dilemma by helping the student to take in the lesson slowly, or at the pace of the student. Ø  Communication worldwide, via video conferencing with native speakers can bring real and rich experience (). Through the advent of video conferencing, it would be relatively easier for the learner to employ the use of video conferencing in order to gain further knowledge as to how the language that one is learning be spoken properly. Also, it ay also fuel further interest in the part of the student as to learning, not only the language of the country but the culture and the people as well. Ø  Email correspondence with “e-pals” can have positive impact on grammar, vocabulary and tenses. This can help further the language and grammar acquisition skills of the student. By continually corresponding with native speakers, students would be exposed to the proper usage and placement of words, as well as spelling and grammar (2001). Ø  Individual learners needs can be supported (2004). It is virtually impossible for a teacher to support each and every need of a learner. But through the use of ICT, each of the student’s individual needs is addressed. Ø  Multimedia resources enable teachers to utilize a variety of visual, audio and text experiences in the target language providing MFL teaching and learning through a range of learning styles.   Also, there are many disadvantages that may be associated with the use of ICT. Ø  Disappearance of files. Unlike hardcopy files, softcopy files are easily deleted, and at times could not be accounted for. Through virus, corruptions and other software related mishaps, education with the usage of ICT can be interrupted. Ø  Electricity. Since ICT is located in a hardware that employs the usage of electricity, it may be one of the factors that may lead to the interruption of teaching and learning of foreign languages. Blackouts, power breaks may lead to interruption of learning. Ø  Some net windows may not open. There may be instances when a certain window could not be opened, maybe due to the internet related causes. These occurrences can ultimately lead to interruption of teaching and learning. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Advantages and Disadvantages in Using ICT as a Primary Educational Tool for Foreign Languages

Advantages and Disadvantages in Using ICT as a Primary Educational Tool for Foreign Languages ICT, otherwise known as Info...

Differentiated Instruction

Differentiated Instruction             The term ‘differentiated instruction’ is defined by Tomlinson and Edison (2003) as ‘a systematic approach to planning curriculum and instruction for academically diverse learners. It is a way of thinking about the classroom with the dual goals of honoring each student’s learning needs and maximizing each student’s learning capacity (p. 3). According to Heacox (2001) differentiating instruction involves changing the pace, level or kind of instruction that the educator provides in response to individual learner’s needs, styles, or interests. Differentiated instruction specifically responds to students’ progress on the learning continuum – what they already know and what they need to learn. It responds to their best ways of learning and allows them to demonstrate what they have learned in ways that capitalize on their strengths and interests.   The principles and practices of differentiated instruction are based on theory and research suggesting that students learn more effectively and efficiently when teachers address their readiness levels, interests, and learning profiles. Let us analyze these factors. Readiness is about the level of performance of a student in relation to specific knowledge, understanding and skill. There are indications that individuals learn when tasks are challenging and when adults or peers support students in spanning the gap between the known and familiar and that which is currently somewhat beyond reach. Interest refers to a student’s desire to learn about a particular topic or to work with a particular set of skills, and is strongly linked to motivation to learn. When tasks, problems, and questions are interesting to them, students are more likely to remain engaged with the task, find the work rewarding, function more creatively, work more independently, be more productive, feel more competent, and sustain a higher level of intrinsic motivation. Learning profile refers to preferred modes of learning and is shaped by an individual’s learning style, intelligence preferences, gender, culture, or a combination of these factors (Jetton and Dole 2004).   Theories of Differentiation             It has been said in the previous section that the effectivity and efficiency of learning depends on the students’ level of readiness, interest, and learning profile. In this section, let us look at the theories that support differentiation by readiness, interest and learning profile, which are the key elements of differentiation. 1. Readiness Differentiation             Psychological and modern studies of the human brain present the theory that individuals learn in accordance with their readiness to learn. This theory points to the importance of tasks being at the proper level of difficulty in maintaining the motivation of the learner. Tasks that are too easy tend to be boring while tasks that are too difficult often lead to frustration. According to Lev Vygotsky (1962, 1978), learning takes place at different points. Vygotsky explains that at a certain point of skill and understanding related to a given facet of learning, a child can function totally independently. Beyond that point, the task becomes difficult for the child to accomplish on his/her own. This is where the teacher comes in. When the child receives support from the teacher, he or she can succeed. If the task become more complex, the child will be unsuccessful in completing the task even if the teacher provide support and assistance. The point where the child is able to accomplish complex task with the support and assistance of the adult/teacher is that child’s ‘zone of proximal development’. In the zone of proximal development, new learning takes place which is facilitated by complex task that can be accomplished by the child through adult assistance. The role of the teacher is to push the child into his or her zone of proximal development, coach for success with a task more complex than the child can manage alone, and thus push forward the area of independence. Through repetition of such cycles, the child grasps new ideas, master new skills, and become increasingly independent thinkers and problem solvers. It should be remember, that children of the same age may not have the same zones of proximal development as developmental and experiential differences exist. 2. Interest Differentiation             Psychologists believes that interest paves the way for learning. According to Bruner (1961) when interest in tapped, learning is more likely to be rewarding, and the student becomes a more independent learner. Creativity is highest when skills of a given domain combine with a student’s won interests and creativity thinking processes. When students are encouraged to pursue their areas of interest, there is a great possibility for them to develop skills important to a particular subject discipline. By supporting children in their interests, educators can maximize their engagement with learning, their productivity, and their individual talents (Amabile 1983; Collins and Amabile 1999). 3. Profile Differentiation             Learning profile includes learning style, intelligence preference, and influences of gender and culture. These elements affect individual learning. Dunn (1996) proposed that individuals vary in preference for conditions of learning. Dunn suggests four learning-style categories; environmental, emotional, sociological, and physical. According to Dunn individual preferences can influence student achievement and attitude about learning. Gender and culture are also believed to have an impact on learning. Some theorists maintain that females tend to prefer collaborative rather than competitive learning opportunities, communicate for purposes of establishing relationships, and have preference for areas of study that appear to facilitate helping others. On the other hand, males may prefer competition and more analytic subjects such as science and mathematics (Gilligan 1982, cited in Tomlinson and Allan 2000, p. 22).   Influence of Gender in Learning             There are studies that point to the influence of gender on learning. For example, boys take longer to master reading than girls do; they show early mathematical ability and strengths in three-dimensional reasoning; they prefer action and exploration to passive learning; they benefit from regular physical activity and do best with hands-on learning in reading and math. Moreover, there are evidences that suggest that girls learn best when their classrooms provide variety in teaching methods; tasks with many possible right answers; activities that use manipulatives and a hands-on process approach to learning; opportunities to ask questions and discuss ideas and concepts; visual ways to present information; examples of real-life applications; and a variety of social arrangements in the classroom, such as a balance between independent and collaborative work and balance between same-gender and mixed gender groups (Heacox 2001). Below are some of the identified differences between females’ and males’ learning styles: 1. Deductive and Inductive Reasoning             Boys tend to be deductive in their conceptualization, starting their reasoning process frequently from a general principle and applying it, or ancillary principles, to individual cases. They also tend to do deductive reasoning more quickly than girls. Girls on the other hand, tend to favor inductive thinking, adding more and more to their base of conceptualization. They tend to begin with concrete examples; it is often easy to teach them concentration, especially in verbalization and writing (Gurian et al 2001). 2. Abstract and Concrete Reasoning             Boys tend to be better than girls at not seeing or touching the things and yet still being able to calculate it. Males like abstract arguments, philosophical challenges, and moral debates about abstract principles (Gurian et al 2001). 3. Use of Language             On average females produce more words than males. During the learning process, girls use words as they learn, and boys often work in silence. Girls tend to prefer having things conceptualized in usable, everyday language, complete with concrete details. Boys often find coded language more interesting (Gurian et al 2001). 4. Logic and Evidence             Girls are generally better listeners than boys, hear more of what is said, and are more receptive to the overabundance of details in a lesson or conversation. This hives them great security in the complex flow of conversation, and thus less need to control conversation with dominance behavior or logical rules. Boys tend to hear less and more often ask for clear evidence to support a teacher’s or other’s claim. Girls seem to feel safe with less logical sequencing and more instructional roundabouts (Gurian et al 2001). 5. The Likelihood of Boredom             Boys tend to get bored more easily than girls. This quite often requires more and varying stimulants to keep them attentive. Girls are better at self managing boredom during instruction and all aspects of education (Gurian et al 2001). 6. Use of Space             Boys tend to use up more space when they learn, especially at younger ages. When a girl and a boy are put together at a table, the boy generally ends up spreading his work into the girl’s space, not vice versa. Boys tend to learn by using more physical space than girls do (Gurian et al 2001). 7. Movement             Girls do not generally need to move around as much while learning. Movement seems to help boys not only stimulate their brains but also manage and relieve impulsive behavior. Movement is also natural to boys in a closed space (Gurian et al 2001). 8. Sensitivity and Group Dynamics             Cooperative learning, which is good for all children, is often easier for girls to master in the early stages of its use. Girls learn while attending to a code of social interaction better than boys do. Boys tend to focus on performing the task well, without as much sensitivity to the emotions of others around them (Guria et al 2001).   Leading the Differentiated Classroom             According to Tomlinson (2001), teachers who become successful leaders of differentiated classrooms develop skills of: <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="circle"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	Organizing and focusing curriculum on essential information, understanding, 	and skills;</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%">Seeing 	and reflecting on individuals as well as the group. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%">Hunting 	for insights about individuals;</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%">Peeling 	back first impressions, looking beyond actions, erasing stereotypes;</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%">Giving 	student a voice;</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	Thinking of and using time flexibly;</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%">Looking 	for a wide range of materials;</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	Thinking of many ways to accomplish a common goal;</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	Diagnosing student need and crafting learning experiences in response to 	diagnoses;</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	Thinking of what could go wrong in an activity or task and structuring 	student work to avoid potential;</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%">Sharing 	responsibility for teaching and learning with students, ensuring that 	students are prepared for the shared roles;</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%">Moving 	students among varied work arrangements as a way to see students in new ways 	and to help them see themselves in new ways; </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%">Keeping 	track of student proximity to and growth toward personal and group 	benchmarks;</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	Organizing materials and space;</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%">Giving 	directions;</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	Teaching for success; and</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	Building a sense of community in the classroom (p. 17). </li> </ul>   The Role of the Teacher             In order to facilitate differentiated learning, the teacher must modify content, process or products to satisfy the needs of the students and to capitalize on their strengths and interests. Content is what the teacher wants his or her students to learn and the materials or mechanisms through which that is accomplished. Process describes activities designed to ensure that students use key skills to make sense out of essential ideas and information. Products are vehicles through which students demonstrate and extend what they have learned (Tomlinson 1999).   Readiness differentiation of content has as its goal matching the material or information students are asked to learn to a student’s capacity to read and understand it. Interest differentiation of content on the other hand, involves incorporating in the curriculum ideas and materials that build on current interests or extend student interests. Lastly, learning profile differentiation of content implies that a student has a way of matching materials and ideas with his/her preferred way of learning.   Content             Content is what is being taught by the teacher. The content of the curriculum on often determined by the school or district and most of the time  is based on the standards set out by local and national governments. Teachers can differentiate content by focusing on the most relevant and essential concepts, processes, and skills or by increasing the complexity of learning. Students have varying needs, there are those who need more instruction and practice while others require less. A teacher differentiates content by: 1. Pre-assessing students’ skills and knowledge, then match learners with appropriate activities according to readiness 2. Giving students choices about topics to explore in greater depth 3. Providing students with basic and advanced resources that match their current levels of understanding               For example, in a classroom a teacher can provide a selection of books that reflect a variety of reading levels and by matching students with the appropriate book. Content can also be differentiated by selecting resources related to a curricular topic, including some that are basic and foundational and others that are more sophisticated, technical, advanced, or in-depth.   Process             Process is the ‘how’ of teaching. In a differentiated instruction, the way the teacher teaches reflects the learning styles and preferences of the students. The teacher can modify process by adding greater complexity or abstractness to tasks, by engaging students in creative thinking, or by increasing the variety of ways in which the teacher asks the students to learn.   Product             Products are the results of learning. A product may be something tangible, like a report, brochure, or model; it may be verbal, like a dialogue, speech, or debate; or it may involve action, like a skit, mock trial, or dance. Products reflect what students have understood and been able to apply. They show learning in use and may reveal new thinking or ideas.    Strategies for Differentiating Content             Listed below are some of the strategies for differentiating content in terms of readiness, interest and learning profile. 1. Concept-Based Teaching             The teacher can help students better understand and see the importance of the topic or lesson by focusing on key concepts and principles. Concepts are the building blocks of meaning. Instead of memorizing, it is encouraged that teachers teach patterns to help students classify things. Having students become adept at determining and predicting patterns and using those patterns to think about various forms of life helps them: <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="circle"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	Understand rather than memorize</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%">Retain 	ideas and facts longer because they are more meaningful</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%">Make 	connections between subjects and facets of a single subject</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%">Relate 	ideas to their own lives, and </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%">Build 	networks of meaning for effectively dealing with future knowledge</li> </ul> 2. Curriculum Compacting             This strategy is made up of three stages. Stage 1 involves the identification of the candidates for compacting. The teacher assesses what the students know and do not know about a particular topic. Stage 2 involves the identification of the skills and understandings that the students did not demonstrate mastery of. The teacher then develops a plan in order to help students learn those skills and understandings. At the beginning of Stage 3, the teacher and student design investigation or study for the student to engage in while others are working with the general lessons. The teacher and student together agree on the project’s parameters, goals, time lines, procedures for completing the tasks, criteria for evaluation, and any other necessary elements. 3. Learning Contracts             Learning contracts between teachers and students come in several varieties. One allows students some freedom in their use of class time in exchange for doing responsible and effective work. Contracts can contain both ‘skills’ and ‘content’ components, and are helpful in managing differentiated classrooms because the components of a contract can vary with a student’s needs (Tomlinson 2001).   Strategies for Differentiating Process             There are different instructional strategies that teachers can employ that will encourage students to work independently or within a group. By using those activities, the teacher can gain more information that will help in matching activities or processes to the needs of every student (Tomlinson 2001).   Strategies for Differentiating Products             The goals of product assignments is to help students, rethink, use, and extend what they have learned over a long period of time. Product assignments can be used to encourage students into application of ideas and skills. They can also be used to help students explore modes of expression unfamiliar to the students. Below are some of the guidelines in designing and implementing product assignments to ensure student success. 1. Use products as one way to help students see the ideas and skills they study in school being used in the world by real people to address real issues or problems. 2. Talk with the students often about the need for both critical and creative thinking. 3. Require that the students use and synthesize or blend multiple sources of information in developing their products. 4. Ensure that students actually use the entire block of time allotted to the project. 5. Support the students’ use of varied modes of expression, materials and technologies (Tomlinson 2001).   References   Amabile, T. (1983). The Social Psychology of Creativity: New York: Springer-Verlag.   Bruner, J. (1961). The Act of Discovery. Harvard Educational Review, vol. 31, pp. 21-32.   Collins. M. & Campbell, B. (1999). Motivation and Creativity. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.). Handbook of Creativity (pp. 279-312). New York: Cambridge University Press.   Dunn, R. (1996) How to Implement and Supervise a Learning Style Program. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.   Gilligan, C. (1982). In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.   Heacox, D. (2001). Differentiating instruction in the regular classroom: how to reach and teach all learners, grades 3-12. Free Spirit Publishing.   Jetton. T. L. & Dole, J. A. (2004). Adolescent literacy research and practice. Guilford Press. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.   Tomlinson, C. A. (1999). The Differentiated Classroom: Responding to the Needs of All Learners. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.   Tomlinson, C. A. (2001). How to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed-Ability Classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.   Tomlinson, C. A. & Allan, S. D. (2000). Leadership for Differentiating Schools and Classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.   Tomlinson, C. A. & Edison, C. C. (2003). Differentiation in Practice: A Resource Guide for Differentiating Curriculum, Grades 5-9. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.   Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.   Vygotsky, L. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambdrige, MA: Harvard University Press.   Gurian, M., Henley, P. and Trueman, T. (2001). Boys and girls learn differently: a guide for teachers and parents. New York: John Wiley and Sons.       Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Differentiated Instruction

Differentiated Instruction The term ‘differentiated instruction’ is defined by Tomlinson and Edison (2003) as ‘a systematic a...

Challenges facing teachers of hearing impaired learners

Challenges facing teachers of hearing impaired learners        Teachers are like parents when children are here in school. They have given up their time and energy to ensure the brightest possible future for every student. They have not just given education but wisdom that they can use for life. In spite the difficulties and challenges that they are facing every day, they are motivated by love and kindness to children. A good teacher always produced a good student in the end. The children love them back and idolize them in return.       There are many ways of handling especially abled students. Deaf, mute and blind have found their way through education just like any ordinary students. Although critical and in depth learning procedures are fully exercised,  teachers still succeed in all of them if they are determined to learned, this is probably the basic requirements.       For Deaf student additional learning problems are being encounter through complexity thinking pattern, shyness and refusal to learn. The children may be encountering low self esteem and emotional imbalance when facing their classmates. Some aggressions from children may also be encountered. They may progress academically until such time they have interest in school. Appropriate assessment is given by a professional psychologist or audiologist to this kind of child if needed, so teachers can gauge their intelligence to properly give them the right education program. There are also a numbers of external factors that influences a child hearing impairment difficult to teach.       A positive approach would be their basic sense of visualization. This is the focus of educators using visual aid pictures and symbols that are pleasing to the eyes makes them ask for more and basically caught their interest in learning. Another technique is the use of motion like silent movies, or animation. Hand and body gestures like acting and dancing also works well that is why sign language is highly popular children learn to communicate with the basic of sign language. These techniques introduced the children the basic learning process. The coordination of parents or guardians also benefits the child’s confidence to learn, their support are highly needed.       A hearing impaired student who has the capacity to buy hearing aid are most likely to get ahead in school. Though it would cause too much this device is worth the cause if they learn to maximize its uses. Some volunteer organizations even provide free counseling to organization that has hearing impaired learners.       A student with hearing impairment may also learn to play musical instrument just like Beethoven. One of the best classic musicians the world has known is actually deaf. There are music programs for deaf person today.         Computers and technology have played a very important role in dealing with deaf people. This technology visualizes a 3D representation of interactive facial and lips movement that the student can demonstrate their own accompanied by customary letters to read.       But one of the best techniques according to professionals is the ever enduring touch of a learner to the teacher’s throat while saying a word. The student will learn the lips movement and basically utter a word. While this technique may be difficult, the student can easily associate to begin a sound. Deaf students may easily interpret and learn to communicate and it becomes possible for them to understand the lips movement even to a far speaker.       Teachers have found so many difficulties in impaired student but they found even more ways to teach them. One cannot make sure that impaired students are guaranteed to learn.  All this techniques makes it a possible learning tools to teach them the truth that though physically impaired they have a special place in this world.       Let me tell you a simple story of a deaf and blind girl whose teacher was so kind. She introduced the little girl the benefit of education. She taught her to spell by hand. The little girl never wants to learn because she is deaf and blind, she couldn’t understand. But her teacher refused to give up. She continuously nourish the child with love and attention,  she taught her to identify things through touch, until one day the little girl learns to discover new things little by little she begun to utter words and speak. Because of her teachers undying persistence that brought her courage to face the world in spite of her disabilities the girl succeeded to learn. Her name is Hellen Keller; she became one of world’s best writers and motivator of all time. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Challenges facing teachers of hearing impaired learners

Challenges facing teachers of hearing impaired learners Teachers are like parents when children are here in school. They have given...

The Success of Communicative Language Teaching Approach (CLT) in the English Classroom of Underdeveloped Countries

The Success of Communicative Language Teaching Approach (CLT) in the English Classroom of Underdeveloped Countries   Communicative language teaching (CLT) refers to an approach of teaching a second or foreign language that concentrates on interaction as the way and the final goal of learning the language.[1] CLT sets up real-life situations that students would have to deal with by communication. Differing from the repetition and drills of the audio-lingual method of teaching, a class exercise using the communicative approach will vary according to the reactions and responses of the students to the real-life simulations that change from day to day. Students are motivated by their desire to communicate in meaningful ways about meaningful topics.[2]   CLT is usually seen as broad approach to teaching with the following features: 1. The emphasis on interaction in the target language in learning to communicate. 2. The use of authentic texts in the learning process. 3. The focusing on language and the Learning Management process. 4. The value given to the students’ own personal experience in the learning process. 5. The association of language learning in the classroom with language activities     outside of it. CLT uses classroom activities such as example activities, role play, interviews, information gap and games. The communicative approach is often considered successful if the teacher understands the student, with the teacher from the same region as the student understanding errors attributable to their first language orientation, while the native target language teacher may still find difficulty in understanding the student. To address the difference, CLT may simulate situations where the teacher pretends to understand only what a regular target language speaker would and responds from that perspective.[3] In spite of criticism, CLT remains popular, particularly in Japan, Taiwan and Europe. Supporters hold that the approach develops and upgrades speaking, writing, listening and reading skills and avoids the passive listening of students to the teacher without interaction.[4]   The lives of people are increasingly being impacted by globalization and technological development in such areas as business and industry, governmental functions and the sciences, which has caused the dominance of the communicative approach in teaching the English language to achieve functional interaction, rather than native-like perfection. Multinational integration has resulted in English being shared and used as an additional language among many groups of non-native speakers. Second English language speakers now outnumber first language speakers and some level of mutual intelligibility is necessary in all international communications. In the struggle between global networks and local identity, more people in various countries turn to English for international communication, but in the process, emphasizing their own variety of it rather than following colonial standardized norms in order to preserve their identity and values. This is true in countries like Singapore, Nigeria and the Philippines. Culture is integrally a part of language learning and the CLT approach must consider the diverse cultures of the many English-speaking people around the world and adjust accordingly.[5]   Employment trends in the 21st century point toward information-based work that requires the use of English in sophisticated global communications and collaborations with various people. Increased tourism, business process outsourcing and international business travel will also correspond to an increased need for English among workers in these sectors. The emergence of the Internet with its audio/video capabilities in Asia, the Middle East, Eastern Europe and Latin America for use in reading/research, writing/authoring and formal/informal communications will also require more people to read, write, speak and listen to English on a daily basis to achieve their own purposes. Second language English speakers from underdeveloped and developing countries will increasingly use the language both as a means to facilitate discourse in international commerce, technology and science, and to empower discourse in challenging the inequalities between countries and social groups.[6] The CLT approach in teaching English has accelerated these learners’ attainment of English proficiency and its resulting benefits to them. 	   		 		 		 		[1] “Communicative Language 		Teaching”, Wikipedia, 4 April 2011, <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_language_teaching>  		[accessed 20 June 2011] 		 		 		 		[2] “The Communicative Approach in 		English as a Foreign Language Teaching”, monografias.com, <http://www.monografias.com/trabajos18/the-communicative-approach/the-communicative-approach.shtml>  		[accessed 20 June 2011] 		 		 		 		[3] “Communicative Language 		Teaching” 		 		 		 		[4] “Teaching English as a Foreign 		Language”, Wikipedia, 10 June 2011, <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TEFL>  		[accessed 20 June 2011] 		 		 		 		[5] Mark Warschauer, “The Changing 		Global Economy and the Future of English Teaching”, 2000 <http://www.gse.uci.edu/person/warschauer_m/global.html>  		[accessed 20 June 2011] 		 		 		 		[6] ibid Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

The Success of Communicative Language Teaching Approach (CLT) in the English Classroom of Underdeveloped Countries

The Success of Communicative Language Teaching Approach (CLT) in the English Classroom of Underdeveloped Countries Communicative lan...