Introduction
Looking at the context of education as central to policy-making is critical. Education is primarily associated with schooling though the scope of education extends to a ‘lifelong learning’ process. Such process concerns the intellectual development and the social development as well. The need for social policy in education imbued education as an instrument of policing intended for the general welfare and policing that dealt with the structure of the society. The purposes of education include liberal education, socialisation, support mechanism and social change. Education aimed at the individual development, spread of social norms and values, provision of childminding services for posterity’s sake and as agent of significant social changes. The challenge for policy-makers, however, conforms to widening the access; educational inequality; poor and falling standards in UK education; participation and examination achievement, more particularly on basic skills acquisition in both numeracy and literacy and school leavers in exchange for labour market participation ( 2006).
In attempt to raise educational standards, the United Kingdom (UK) had introduced a number of important educational interventions through policy reforms. The most recent reforms to the education system are innovative market-oriented reforms that directly deal with parental choice about the school attended by their children, nationally-prescribed curriculum, elevation of post-schooling participation and introduction of tuition fees for higher education (2006). Going back in the 1970s, the conservative critiques of the education system argued that the abandonment of selection had been disparaging, discipline in schools had been worn and new teaching methods had been disastrous. The schools inspectorate observed, in addition, that comprehensives imitated grammar schools instead of setting-up own curriculum, curriculum had been flooded by unreasonable examinations and the dissention of less able pupils in practically all schools.
Factors that Influence the Development of Social Policy in Education
Education change strategies are based on two significant trends the need for consolidation and strengthening the structural changes that took place at the higher level of hierarchy through elections, for example and the need for a serious paradigm from extensive and centralized developments to intensive and decentralized developments. The concept of comprehensive change cycle dealt with comprehensive systemic change cycle in all relevant sub-sectors of education system. The factors that could affect developments in social education policies are the present education policy itself and its limitations, governance or the political structure, change in demographics or population and mortality rates, the needs for skills and knowledge, curriculum, general knowledge changes, teacher training needs and many more. Design and implementation of changes in educational policies in UK also takes into focus the coherent conceptual framework, central and local structures and short/medium/long term strategies ( 2000).
The overall ideological analysis of New Labour’s education policy intensifies the neo-liberalism but subordinated both neo-conservative and social democratic policy. The social democratic principles from 1945-1979 were redistributive polices, extensions of provisions and financing through agency of local and national state, traditional equal opportunities through proactive approach, professionalism and qualifications and regulation of government agencies for equal opportunities of these professionals. In lieu to these principles, social democracy and (Old) Labour education policy included: comprehensive schooling; expansion and extension of educational opportunities towards hitherto exclusions or semi-exclusion of the population as expansion of secondary education via the 1944 Education Act, expansion of higher education and the Open University system; local community involvement in schooling and higher education, local community control over schooling and higher education through democratically-elected and accountable Local Education Authorities (LEAs); a degree of positive discrimination and redistribution of resources within and between the schools and universities by means of the 1970s Educational Priority Areas through targeted spending or plussages by LEAs; commitment to policies of equal opportunites; curriculum and education system that recognizes the issues of social justice while producing technically efficient and fair capitalist society; developing teachers as authoritative but relatively democratic and anti-authoritarian approach; a contextual type of teacher reflection compared to a technical reflection, or a moral/ethical social justice type of critical reflection; and flourishing the collective economy and society as well as flourishing the individual (2001).
Changes in the traditional Labour party rhetoric followed in 1994 upon Tony Blair’s victory. The New Labour changes provoked widespread opposition to what was perceived likely as an adaption and/or extension of the Conservative Party policies. Opponents came from the Old Left and Marxists and from former social democrats. With respect to education, the parties attacked the new administration’s policies over issues of selection and comprehensivisation including the renewal of Opted-Out schools and selective Grammar school, a practice salient during the 1970s. Hierarchical diversity in schooling overshadowed the choice of schools to be attended by the students. The existence and strengthening of social class-based selection in secondary schooling through ‘choice’ mechanism was rehabilitated (2001).
In 1997, the New Labour general election manifesto related their premise wherein class size would be cut down to 30 or under for 5-7 year-old students; provide nursery places for all four years old, attack low standards in schools, provide access to computer technology, provide lifelong learning through new University for Industry and spend more on education as the cost of unemployment falls. In particular, the changes are: ‘teacher training’, ‘modernising’ comprehensive education or ‘encouraging selection and diversity’, ‘creating new partnerships’, standards, racialised social class and ‘increased public expenditure’ ( 2001).
Schools improvement calls for a time and overarching goals to place education at the service of an inclusive society where everyone could have an equal chance to achieve his or her full potential. In 1998, the government set-out a vision of a knowledge-based economy through increasing the access, most specially from groups that are represented in higher education, that includes disabled people and people from low-income households; providing educational opportunities for those people who misses out the formal education and using technology which will make courses more easily accessible. Policy-makers realized with the growing applications of technology that lifelong learning does not necessarily conform to locations. ‘Perpetual students’ could study from their home, from a local library or even shopping malls. The ultimate goals of the policy-makers in this period are to assist people plan and manage their own learning experience and to enable them to make apt transitions between education and working life or as when the needs arises (2000).
Implications of Social Policies
These are the positive aspects of social policy reforms in education – acceptable consideration on the equality, demographic changes, transformation on the university and educators role, distributive, responsive and proactive participation of the people, internationalization and technological deliberation. As Michael Courville puts it, ‘the equalizing effects of schooling has been integral to any nations’ ideological legacy whether education invoked an upward mobility and stable employment’ (2003). The Beveridge Report proved that UK is not an exception. Taking this stance in reflection, the question would be: What are the evidences that social policy in education and the subsequent reforms through changes in government genuinely sustains equality? To what extent?
Many economists argued that educational policy reforms benefits only those that have inherent access, facilities, resources and mobilities. Curriculum changes are evidences of creation of hegemony of ideas from school and the future citizens. Curriculums are basically manipulated by prime ministerial and ministerial command. The recommendations to include the social effects of Science, to study history since the last twenty years and a considerable concern for creative writing were rejected by the education ministers; an aspect of Thatcherism. This implicates a non-consensus or a non-participation of disadvent groups such as the working class and minority ethnic groups; thus, educational participation proved to be unequal and would probably result to poverty in the long run since participation is limited and so as the access. The implicit ‘peer group’ effect or pressure could further reinforce socio-economic disadvantages.
From a social context, inequality are disadvantages specifically in class, gender, race, income and wealthy. This are directly related to education and schooling and its treatment, opportunities provided and outcomes as well as access. Taking a journey back in history, education lapses widened during the 1980s. The staying on rate at age 16, the compulsory school leaving age in UK, had been increasing during for over a number of years. There was a growing concern that academic achievement of both individual students and schools had stagnated and remains low by international standards. Most students are laving with no qualifications and two-third of the cohorts did not achieve examination success at age 16. The introduction of ‘quasi-market’ policies as Education Reform Act of 1998 and National Curriculum increased the parental choice and improve the accountability of state-funded schools. While also, such policies provide complete autonomy for the schools to increase competition and decentralize school financing; thus raising inequality because only richer parents could take advantage of the market-oriented educational system. The productivity cost associated with it demonstrates that students from poor economic and social backgrounds are being deprived (2006).
Income distribution, largely, identified the educational background of an individual. This has a ‘succession’ effect that lead to further income inequality at large. Inequality in terms of access certainly reduces the increase in the length of school education wherein performance, attainment, allocation and a relative access to labour market are apparent. For example, societies, including UK, had concerns on the rapid progress of technology and future facilitation of such in many areas including education. The integration of computers and technology in schools are expensive and complex process. The use of computers requires necessary equipment and competency. Though advantages are in existence, it may likely to apply onto families who can afford. In addition, as children of educated or non-educated parents are proven disparity enhancers ( 2004).
Conclusion
Evaluating the present social policies on education takes into consideration understanding the elements that shape the development of such. The origin of social policy on education and its explanation kowtow three main constructs: economic, political and social. Policy-makers believed that the UK’s economic progress and social cohesion are dependent on the knowledge, skills and values of the workforce as Walsh and company related. They look to the educational systems and institutions in enhancing such attributes. The scope of educational polices are broadened and is now applied to non-formal settings. However, the policy mix gave way for the mergence of poverty, inequality and social exclusion qualitatively and quantitatively. The reproduction of social inequality demonstrates the dominance of socio-economic basis of inequalities at school.
The emergence of policy-making in education stemmed from the idea that experiences of educational system directly points to sources of power and authority. In the sphere of education, policy-makers are inevitably widening the gap between the rich and the poor. In a society like UK changes in the education are dictated by the relative changes in observable social, economic and most significantly politics movement. Since the movements regarding the internal and external demands of education industry in addressing the current challenges such as accommodation, school leaving, rates of dropped-outs and others are changing; then the monitoring and evaluating schemas must be also changed. The educational policy reforms are cyclical and could conform to continuity. Aside from this, addressing the more relevant social issue of providing access and continuum in educational ladder among the deprived group, choices and relative compliances to technological changes conform to, again, significant social policing on education. In sum, the growing or limiting demands necessitates modification on educational policies that could purport equality on education as a right of every individual.
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