Plato, Augustine, Hobbes and Freud all sought to define what human nature is. These theorists view human nature in different perspectives. This essay aims to discover the relationships between these theorists’ views. Freud seem to adopt Plato’s, Augustine’s and Hobbe’s views in his approach to human nature. However, beneath the superficial similarities lie significant differences. I seek to explore the similarities and differences of Plato’s, Augustine’s and Hobbe’s views on the one hand and those of Freud on the other. What sets Freud’s views on human nature apart from those of the other theorists?
Plato believes that the soul is made up of three components: reason (rational soul), will (spirited soul) and power (appetitive soul). According to him, well being will be achieved if these three components work in harmony. Reason must rule over will and appetite. Will must play as a subject and an ally to reason. Together, reason and will must influence appetite which is the largest part of the soul and by nature most insatiable. Plato’s three-part theory is somewhat similar to Freud’s Psychoanalysis. Freud divides the soul into three parts: the id, which represents biological instincts, the ego, which distinguishes between the internal mind and external reality, and the super-ego, which limits the pleasure seeking drives of the id by imposing rules. Both Plato and Freud believe that the trouble or conflict arise when the three parts do not work in harmony. Plato believes that in order to build harmonious relationship between the three components, reason must rule both will and power. Freud on the other hand believes that harmony will be achieved through psychoanalytical techniques. If the id cannot be satisfied by the external world or if id’s satisfaction will break the rules imposed by the super-ego, then an inner conflict will occur. Repression is a defence mechanism wherein the ego seeks to avoid internal conflict by repressing the impulse to behave in a way that is reprehensible to the super-ego. According to Freud, repression, which mirrors Plato’s idea of human happiness (reason controlling desires and emotions) does not destroy the subdued instinctive drives. These continue to exist and exert influence upon the conscious mind. Neurosis according to Freud occurs when the repressed impulse began to control and rule over the conscious mind.
For Saint Augustine, original sin is primarily sexual. He believes that sin was not just a matter of choice; it was inherited from Adam and Eve. Augustine believes that the world God created was overwhelmingly good. However, man is destined to commit sin, to lust for power and to envy. Augustine’s view that original sin is sexual led him to believe that infants are filled with lust, jealousy and other vices. These sins are passed down from generation to generation. Man cannot overcome his desire to commit sin. Man has limited will to choose good over evil. Augustine believes that man is destined to commit mistakes. He believes that humans could not overcome their faults through will and education. He believes that people cannot be righteous through their own ability. Augustine believes that man can only find virtue in religious passion. He believes that salvation comes to those who respond to God’s love with a love of their own for God. We can say that Augustine view humans as naturally born sinners. We are sinners from the moment we are conceived. He also believes that we cannot overcome our desire for evil. Our soul is always on conflict. It is only through God and religious passion we can find virtue and salvation. Augustine’s concept of sin is somewhat related to Freud’s notion of aggression. Freud believes that behavior is motivated by sexual and instinctive drives. These sexual and instinctive drives are known as libido. Sexual drives and libido are natural to man in the same way as sin (sexual in nature as suggested by Augustine) is. Aggression arises when these libidinal urges are repressed. Both Augustine and Freud believe that we are constantly in struggle between good and bad. Let us consider Freud’s work on childhood sexuality and development led him to a notion that young children, especially young boys, harbor erotic desire for their opposite-sex parent, combined with competitive, even homicidal inclinations toward the same-sex parent. Freud calls this occurrence as “Oedipus Complex”. In order to have a clear picture of aggression and Oedipus Complex let us provide an example. A young boy, probably five years of age starts to develop an intense sexual desire for his mother. The mother is regarded by the child as provider of his needs and therefore seeks to develop a more intimate relationship with her. As his desire became more intense, he begins to see his father as a competition and displays aggression towards his father. Internal conflict will occur in the young boy, he loves his father but at the same time he views him as an obstacle to his forming of intimate relationship with his mother. According to Freud this ‘Oedipal Dilemma’ can be resolved by strengthening the super-ego. The boy will start to reject the mother a love object, possibly because of his fear of his father. He will start to identify with his father. Thus he will come to understand that an intimate relationship between him and his mother is improper. Augustine’s solution to conflicts or sins is different from Freud’s. Augustine believes that internal conflicts and sins cannot be conquered. He believes that man chooses not to do what is right because either it is hidden from him or he finds no delight in it. Freud on the other hand believes that internal conflict can be resolved by strengthening the super-ego.
Hobbes believes that all men are born equal. Men posses equal body and mind abilities. He believes that men seek to attain their highest hopes and dreams. Conflict arises from opposing interests, when both men desire something that they cannot achieve. Because of opposing interests, men turn on each other and aspire to subdue or destroy each other. According to Hobbes, the three primary reasons for aggression are competition, diffidence and glory. The first makes men invade for gain; the second for safety; and the third for reputation. Freud asserts that men display aggressive behaviors toward others in a civilization or society because of their nature. He believes that men are not gentle by nature and they cannot defend themselves in time of attack. He believes that every man is endowed with aggressiveness. Aggression, according to Freud arises from irrational drives. Man sees his neighbor not only as a potential helper or a sexual object but also someone whom he can exercise his aggressiveness on. Man wants to exploit his neighbor’s capacity without compensation, to use him sexually without his consent, to seize his possessions, to humiliate him, to cause him pain, to torture and kill him.
Perhaps the most significant difference between Freud’s views on human nature and those of the other philosophers’ is their view of humans. Plato, Augustine and Hobbes view human beings with their rational or spiritual potential while Freud views human beings with their unconscious desires. Humans as viewed by Plato are capable of reasoning, capable of controlling his desires. Humans as viewed by Augustine are born sinful. Humans choose not to do the right thing because it is hidden from them or they find no pleasure in it. Humans according to Hobbes are born equal. Humans seek to fulfill their wish and desires. Freud’s theory of human nature is based on biological factors rather than reasoning or spirituality. He believes that human behavior is influenced by powerful unconscious super-ego.
Smith believes that civilization would be improved by keeping governments small and focused on protecting citizens’ rights. He believes that humans are self-serving; they desire pleasure and avoid pain. Smith believes that maintaining a free market will guard the economy against self-serving individuals. Humans will choice the least expensive product when they are confronted with products of equal quality. The producers of higher priced commodities will have no choice but to lower their price or find some other way to employ their capital. When the price of a product is relatively higher than its intended price, self-serving individuals will begin to produce the commodity, thereby increasing the supply. If the supply is higher than the demand, the price of the commodity will be decreased. Smith believes that a smaller civilization is more desirable than a larger one. He asserts that people will live in abundance and happily if there is a division of labor. For example, in a small pin factory wherein only ten men are employed, each man is called to two or three distinct operations. He asserts that division of labor causes multiple productions by an individual, which in turn increases the wealth that is shared by the citizens. In Smith’s view, conflict can be reduced and people will live happily if their rights are protected and if they are productive. Smith claims that a well-run society is a place where every worker supplies each other abundantly with what they need. This general plenty diffuses itself through all the different ranks of society.
Rousseau argues that man can live without conflict and people can live happy lives if they remain in the state of nature. He believes that people are good and that society and politics corrupt people. He argues that people society has transformed man’s positive self-love into pride and vanity. He argues that a man in the state of nature is his own master. He desires self-preservation only. This desire is combined with reason. Pride and vanity, the products of political society on the other hand, compel humans to compare himself to others. Because of pride and vanity humans develop a desire to hurt and make other people subject to slavery. In Rousseau’s view, a conflict-free and happy society is one where people live independently, similar to the environment where primitive humans lived. He argues that primitive humans, humans who lived before civilization existed were possessed of a desire to care for themselves. These humans also had compassion or pity toward other people. The birth of civilization has forced humans to be dependent on others. The society has damaged personal integrity and authenticity and promoted interdependence, hierarchy and inequality.
Marx argues that the nature of labor has dehumanizing effects on man (the worker). According to Marx the political economy concealed the estrangement or alienation natural in the nature of labor by not considering the direct relationship between the worker and production. He argues that although labor produces wonderful things for the rich, for the poor it produces misery. He believes that labor does not belong to man’s intrinsic nature. He argues that in man’s work he does not affirm himself but denies himself, does not feel content and unhappy, does not develop freely his physical and mental energy but mortifies his body and ruins his mind. Work becomes involuntary it becomes forced labor. Labor becomes a process wherein man alienates himself. Marx believes that a conflict-free society wherein people live happy lives is classless. It is a society where human beings would be free to develop their diverse talents and to cultivate all their richly human senses. In a classless society, alienation , oppression, exploitation and antagonism will be eliminated because the worker would have control over his product, would work joyously, would be in touch with his social and most humane qualities, would be joined together, not separated from, his fellows (1987).
Freud believes that conflict-less society where people live happily is impossible to achieve. He believes that human by nature is aggressive and seeks to cause pain, suffering and destruction to others. He argues that every man has an inclination to aggression and this disturbs our relations with other people. Humans have aggressive desires that can cause the destruction of the society. He does not believe that conflict and aggression cannot be eliminated by reorganizing society as other philosophers suggest. He argues that conflict and aggression can be reduced (to a certain degree) through understanding human minds. Freud believes that aggression cannot be destroyed because this is inherent to human nature, rather he suggests that humans should continually strive to overcome it.
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