Chapter II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter shall provide a discussion and earlier analysis and evaluation collated from past and current articles on e-learning, education journals and studies. The discussion of the collected secondary data would be among the basis for the formulation of sound conclusions and recommendations. This in turn would be the setting in attaining the research goal: to provide a comprehensive high quality work, that would add up to the literature in explaining the dynamics of e-learning; its factors, issues, prospects and challenges.
Learning Online
E-learning is defined as “the acquisition and use of knowledge distributed and facilitated primarily by electronic means.” (Wentling and Park, 2000). Online Learning was defined by Berge (1998) as activities limited to primary delivery by computer-mediated online instruction, as opposed to delivery systems such as audio or video/TV. Additionally, it is the kind of instruction in which the course interaction is conducted completely online, or significantly online (i.e., where, at the minimum,. 50% of the graded part of the course is online) (Berge, 1998).
Based on this definition, e-learning would be evolved to systems consisting of a variety of channels and technologies and can take the form of courses as well as modules and smaller learning objects and may incorporate synchronous or asynchronous access and be distributed without geographical limits.
Moreover, e-learning using technologies and computers to improve learner’s skill and knowledge has the following advantages (Wentling and Park, 2000): space is not needed; learners do not need to wait until a class is available; learners can complete training when it is least disruptive to their schedule; and the methods can increase learner’s interesting, deliver contents clearly, and feedback students easily. Due to these advantages of e-learning, the popularity of e-learning has dramatically increased over the past few years.
The Internet and the World Wide Web (WWW) have made the process of obtaining an education without regard to time or location easier for the student. (Levy, 2001) In e-learning, not only does the instruction occur via a computer system, usually over the Internet, but other educational processes occur via the computer as well. These educational processes are student services, training, and support. The transition to online distance learning, primarily driven by social change, is creating a paradigm shift in the way colleges are viewing teaching and learning (Rogers, 2000). Administrators, faculty, staff, and students realize that in order to successfully implement e-learning, their colleges will need to reassess their programs.
In a study made by Jones (2000), it advances the principle of using e-learning to offset the conditions imposed by the increase in enrollment and the decrease in financial assets, and explores the requirements associated with distance learning, and compares those requirements to those of traditional education. According to the study, the growth in Internet based education is changing the face of traditional education. The technology advances allow educators to eliminate space and physical facilities requirements, and to eliminate class size limits. The study noted that several researches on distance learning and Internet based education is in the early stages of development. Many terms are used to refer to e-learning such as distance education, distance learning, and e-learning.
Jones (2000) cited the work of Weigel (2000), which stated that, the ‘no significant difference’ theory. According to the latter, the said theory may represent the most egregious application of benchmarking in the past 20 years. The latter’s article discussed the tradeoff between richness and reach in distance education. He defines “richness” as the overall quality of information provided such as variables like currency, accuracy, interactivity and relevance. He utilized the term “reach” to refer to the number of people involved in the exchange of the information. In traditional education, the tradeoff between richness and reach is cost. The institutions must balance the cost of richness, or depth, of the traditional course with the cost associated with expanding the reach outside of the traditional area market. With Internet technologies, the additional costs of expanding the reach outside of the traditional market are reduced.
Moreover, other education professionals also have indicated negative results in studies conducted on Internet based educational programs. One such study urged caution in the development and advancement of distance learning programs and platforms (Jones, 2000). They expressed the concern that the high technology and development cost may impact on the traditional academic programs. Their study reported perceptions of students in the distance learning setting were less favorable than the local setting for traditional classes.
Furthermore, the process of e-learning has been defined as providing a structured learning environment that involves the separation of parties over distance and/or time (Carter, 2001). Student success in distance education depends on the quality of course design, instructor presentation, course interaction, equipment and technology. One of the major issues in developing an effective Internet based course is the ability of current faculty to perform in this environment. Internet technologies have been growing since the early 1990’s. Moreover, there exist different levels of computer skills and abilities in all faculties. The levels of computer and technology efficiency in most universities are inversely correlated with faculty age and academic experience. (Lan, 2001) Faculty technology experience can be used as a predictor of potential participation in technology based instruction.
History of E-learning
The roots of e-learning is highly ingrained in the development of distance learning throughout the centuries. In 1840, the English inventor of shorthand, Sir Isaac Pitman, came up with an ingenious idea for delivering instruction to a possibly limitless audience through correspondence courses by mail. His concept was so hot that within a few years he was corresponding with a legion of far-flung learners (Phillips, 1998). Within a few decades, regular, and in some cases, extensive programs were available in the United Kingdom, Germany, the United States and Japan (Curran, 1997).
Consequently, by the 1900s, the first department of correspondence teaching was established at the University of Chicago. In Australia, the University of Queensland established a Department of External Studies in 1911. Before 1969, distance teaching had developed into an important sector of higher education in quite a few countries. The founding of United Kingdom’s Open University (OU) in 1969 marked a significant development of the second phase of distance learning, with its mixed-media approach to teaching (Curran, 1997). The OU sent learning materials to students by mail, which included carefully constructed texts and audio, and video materials. These were accompanied with conventional broadcast radio and television. Each student was assigned a tutor who tutored over the telephone and in-group sessions in the evenings or on weekends. The British Open University pioneered distance education on a massive scale (D.N. 1997). The OU and other open universities were important in raising the profile of distance education, effectively bringing distance teaching from the margins closer to the center stage of higher education (Curran 1997).
On the other hand, at roughly the same time as the founding of the OU, satellites were moving into commercial use. The PEACENET in the Pacific Basin was founded in 1971 and used in the first ever application of satellites in distance education (Hall, P. 1996). Moreover, distance education is first and foremost a movement that sought not so much to challenge or change the structure of higher learning, but to extend the traditional university and to overcome its inherent problems of scarcity and exclusivity. Second, distance education developed as a creative political response to the increasing inability of the traditional university structure to grow larger (Hall, J. 1995). Distance education dealt with the problem of too many students in a single physical space. The university could, in effect, reach out, offering not seats, but the opportunity to learn.
In the two decades following the opening of the British Open University in 1969, four open universities were established in Europe, and more than 20 were established in countries around the world. There was considerable growth over the ensuing decades. In the United States, by the mid-1980s, more than 300,000 students were enrolled in university-taught distance education courses. In Canada, some 19 conventional universities were active in distance teaching. In Australia, the University of Queensland initiative had grown to some 3,000 students by the late 1960s. By the mid-1980s, some 40 institutions had an enrollment of external students equivalent to approximately 12% of higher education students. In the Soviet Union, where distance teaching was adopted in the late 1920s, all 61 universities eventually offered education by correspondence, and it is reported in the former German Democratic Republic that approximately one quarter of the university and technical college graduates attained their qualification by means of distance education. It is clear that distance education had developed into a substantive sector of higher education in quite a few countries (Curran 1997).
Furthermore, in 1994 the OU was teaching more than 200,000 students, including young men and women in Russia, Hungary, the Czech and Slovak republics, Bulgaria and Romania. There are now OU offices located in Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Ireland, Spain and Switzerland (Peck 1995).In a number of cases, particular open universities have a student population that is bigger than that of the median-size university in the same country, and in a few cases bigger than the largest traditional university. Nonetheless, in many countries the substantive student population is made up of enrollment in distance teaching programs provided by many individual universities and colleges. The widening over time of the range of programs provided and the kinds of student populations served has, in both cases, reinforced the trend toward further growth (Curran 1997).
Potentials of E-learning
In the advent of modern technological advancement, a notable number of educational institutions have started to acquire the online method of providing education. Regardless of the technology used for delivery, effective e-learning still requires students and teachers to engage in discussions and dialogue (Jones, 2000). The communication process required for on-line courses is no different from that of traditional classes. The process requirements include access, motivation, socialization, and information exchange. Universities must also be aware of the effects of technology, constraints, and the reputation of their schools on the effectiveness of distance learning. This requirement is often not addressed in the initial development and implementation of the distance learning process. As technology advances, the student – teacher contact will become more important. Moreover, by establishing e-learning courses, universities can position themselves to overcome the barriers imposed by the current economic conditions, and eliminate the requirement to construct new or additional classrooms and support services to accommodate the increased enrollment. This paper recommends that distance learning, or Internet based courses, be offered to supplement the traditional classroom instruction, not replace it.
Concurrently, as the number of students enrolled increases, the need to offer additional sections of core classes will increase. (Jones, 2000) To reduce the additional amount of facility requirements, sections of each core course could be offered, on line, in addition to the traditional classroom. Using this system, a student may in fact have a mixture of in-class and on-line courses during the semester. The academic faculty could also have a mixture of traditional and on-line courses. Moreover, the student could benefit by taking the online courses that provide the most comfort, while benefiting from the in-class experience in their other courses. Students that have a higher level of maturity, and are comfortable using computer technology would benefit most from these courses. For students that find they need additional information, they have the same availability to the instructor as traditional classes.
Furthermore, this method provides some benefits to the instructor as well. The instructor may be able to identify students that have mastered the subjects early, and could concentrate on those that require additional assistance. In addition, the student still benefits from the traditional social environment that is required for advancing social responsibilities and peer networks (Armstrong, 2000). In addition to the possibility of gaining new students outside their area of influence, institutions could benefit by avoiding the cost of acquiring new facilities. Even if funds were available, the time frame for most major construction projects is extensive. In most cases, the predicted bubble in enrollment will be declining prior to the completion of the construction process.
In order to effectively measure the impact of the potentials of e-learning in the academe, this study found it vital to cite the work of Whalen and Wright (1999) regarding the cost-efficiency and cost-effectiveness of e-learning. First of all, one should define the two stated concepts. Cost-efficiency and cost-effectiveness are two similar terms related to financial performance. Even though they have slightly differentiated meanings, they have been used without clarification. Efficiency means the ratio of output to input and effectiveness is concerned with only output. Stated differently, efficiency focuses on “how much output was obtained from the input,” that is, the quantity and effectiveness focuses on “how relevant the output is,” that is, the quality. According to their work, the e-learning method is relatively cost-efficient in the case that its outputs cost less per unit of input and it is cost-effective if its outputs not only spend less cost than others but also are relevant to learner’ needs.
Inroads to Online Learning
The establishment of an e-learning program does, however, involve some cost (Threlkeld & Brzoska, 1994). Development and implementation cost will vary across universities, based on their current technology programs. Among its costs is the technology, which include the hardware and software requirements; the transmission, which is the on going expense associated with transmission systems; the maintenance, which includes the repair of equipment as well as the lifecycle cost; the infrastructure, this includes the network and telecommunications infrastructure on campus; production such as the technological and personnel support required to develop teaching materials; the support which may be classified to miscellaneous expenses, administrative cost, and overhead cost; and the personnel which constitute the staff support for all functions.
Moreover, these costs could also be associated with traditional education courses. (Jones, 2000) Most institutions now have the technology, infrastructure, support and personnel to accommodate the development of distance learning courses. In addition, most universities have both Internet and intranet services online, supported by full service IT departments. With the advance and popularity of software packages, software development cost is no longer a major issue. In addition, these software packages can be fully utilized with little formal training. Once developed, most courses can be offered again and again with little modification, thereby lowering development cost. The maintenance and transmission cost could increase, based on usage of the systems. These costs, along with other miscellaneous support and overhead cost, would be directly proportional to student enrollment and use.
Among other considered inroads include faculty availability and training, course development cost, copyright laws, course enrollment limits, technology availability to students, and course selection. (Jones, 2000) Moreover, colleges and universities are compelled to provide sufficient technological resources to support students. This support ranges from sufficient computers and workstations to allow student access, to help desk and support services. Most colleges and universities have student computer labs, library computer labs, and other support services that provide technical and support services.
Another variable that has been considered is the inability of distance education to influence the social growth of students (Armstrong, 2000). Armstrong provides a strong argument that traditional education provides an important function in the social growth of students. Armstrong also advances the theory that Internet based distance learning is more attractive to continuing professional educational adults and students looking for a quick and efficient way of completing their degree.
Factors to Consider in Instituting E-learning
In a study made by Levy (2001), she gave several variables to take into account in instituting the method of e-learning. The first factor is the need of a vision and a plan. She cited Hache (2000) wherein it was made clear that when college faculty, staff, and administration start with a vision, it is necessary for them to understand that this vision will result in a change in the organizational culture. Moreover, it must be considered that e-learning programs cannot be molded into the image of existing campus-based programs (Miller, 1998) in which administrative and support systems were built for the traditional on-campus student. Administrative support structures, student services, technology support, and faculty training and support needs are all areas that need to be analyzed and perhaps changed in order to successfully implement e-learning processes. On the other hand, the WWW has caused the biggest change in education and learning since the advent of the printed book a little over 500 years ago (Draves, 2000). It is often difficult for people to adapt during times of rapid change. People tend to defend their methods, values, and beliefs and are not willing to take risks, so a solid resistance to the changes that may be created by implementing an e-learning program should be expected.
Draves (2000) declared that the rate of adopting e-learning processes would improve if revised policies and procedures and strategies to address critical issues existed. Therefore, understanding how to plan a successful program will be essential to their success. Instruction is shifting from a model of individual use of technology to an integration of instruction and student services through technology.
Another variable provided by Levy (2001) is the curriculum. The e-learning method is more than a teaching mode or method; it is a distinct and coherent field of education (Keegan, 1986), focused on new delivery methods and pedagogical philosophy. Moreover, many instructors do not want to change their style of instruction. Some feel that interactive lectures, small group activities, or closed labs are the only way that a subject can be taught. Others have not yet adapted their lectures to the advances provided by technology such as PowerPoint presentations and multimedia demonstrations and do not want to change their teaching style. These deeply held beliefs and long-established practices will be changed as courses are moved online, requiring new ways of thinking about teaching and learning.
Another variable is the need of staff training and support. (Levy, 2001) Instructor training is particularly needed to support faculty in a field that is rapidly changing. In addition, providing technical support for faculty is challenging for many colleges because of limited resources. Traditionally, faculty has received support from three different areas of the campus: libraries, computing centers, and faculty development centers. Institutions need to strive to provide access to technology and tools that help members of the campus community reach their goals. In order to gain the knowledge necessary to implement online curriculum effectively, instructors must have the necessary training, mentoring, and support, preferably on the equipment they will use. Faculty training must be considered when institutions plan for an online distance learning program.
Moreover, Levy (2001) also pointed out the need of an efficient provision of student services. Regrettably, colleges face a dilemma in planning for e-learning because they are torn between wanting to serve students online and the need to continue to support their traditional student services (Collis et al., 1993). Yet, it is important for administrators to consider the student who will never come to campus, and to provide the essential student services for that student. In addition, Inglis et al. (1999) stated that delivering courses online at a distance calls for a reorganization of the ways in which support services are provided. This is important to ensure that the highest standard of support is provided for the resources available as well as to avoid the possibility of costs escalating.
The last aspect, according to Levy (2001), is the protection of copyright and intellectual property. Institutions need to protect their interests while maintaining academic freedom for their instructors. Therefore, establishing a copyright/intellectual rights policy is necessary to deal with issues before a problem occurs (Gasaway, 2002).
In addition, Savery and Duffy (1995) also provided several requisites for the success of the e-learning process. They placed importance on the dedication of the participants to learn. As active participants in the learning process, students affect the manner in which they deal with the material to be learned. Learners must have a sense of ownership of the learning goals. They must be both willing and able to receive instructional messages. Moreover, the mental effort that a learner will invest in a learning task depends on his own perception of two factors. First is the relevance of both the medium and the message, which it contains; and second, his ability to make something meaningful out of the material presented.
On the other hand, authors also placed importance on the effectiveness of communication. Shneiderman (1992) cautions all instructional designers to begin with an understanding of their intended users, and to recognize them as individuals whose outlook is different from the designer’s own. Horton (1994) on the other hand, states the golden rule for designers of instructional visuals: “communicate unto others as they would communicate unto themselves.” In other words, if one wants the learner to construct an idea which is similar to one’s own, then it is important to use an image for the presentation which will trigger a similar idea in the learner’s mind, in the context of the learning environment and the learner’s prior experiences. Needless to say, no two learners will form the same idea, nor is it likely that their idea will be the same as that of the designer
Past Studies on Online Learning
This part of the study shall provide several studies conducted to evaluate e-learning from different perspectives. The first study is made by Lytras and company (1999). The study posits that in recent years the evolution of information and communication technologies has expanded further the possibility for the establishment of effective e-learning solutions. In this era of enormous transformation in education a number of key questions are arising. The effectiveness of learning systems, the justification of web based learning processes, the learners satisfaction and the analysis of the educational product are only a few of the most critical dimensions for the design and the implementation of an e-learning course. Moreover, their work discussed the value dimension of e-learning and tried to formulate a synthetic approach for the evaluation of any e-learning system. The study recognized that there are three key concepts that seem to be the cornerstones of the study’s analysis. These concepts include knowledge management capabilities, integration and e-learning pedagogy. The study concluded that the current situation in e-learning markets does not represent the fascinating issue of the incorporation of information and communication technologies in education.
Another study is made by Ham (2002). The focus of the study was the perception of students on web-based courses. The purpose of the study was to investigate student satisfaction levels with their web-based learning experience. Two hundred sixty nine students enrolled in 40 graduate-level, web based courses in 3 sites were surveyed. The study found out that there is a significant relationship between satisfaction and self-efficacy as well as between self-efficacy and interpersonal control at two sites. Likewise, the study also revealed that there is a significant relationship between available technical support and the students’ over-all success in their courses this is also the result when the variable of technical support is limited to instructor assistance or teaching assistants. The study also found out that there is a significant relationship between satisfaction and level of communication. On the other hand, the study concluded that the attitude of the students towards the Web were positively correlated to both their satisfaction and success at one site while the second site attitudes towards the Web were positively correlated only to satisfaction with the course. Nevertheless, the study also stated that there exist no significant relationship between students’ participation in collaborative activities and satisfaction.
On another study by Lee (2001), it focused on the factors affecting the behavioral intentions of adults regarding their learning through e-learning in higher education. The study examined the underlying factors and causal relationships that determine the behavioral intentions of learners to use web-based learning technology in postsecondary education. A total of 557 respondents were involved in the study. The study found out that system features such as functionality, interactivity, and response, had significant total effects upon intentions to use. On the other hand, the perception for usefulness and ease of use had a significant direct effect upon intentions to use for both supplementary learning and distance education. It as well had a significant effect on intention for supplementary learning, but its direct effects on intentions to use for supplementary learning directly influenced the intention to use for distance education. Moreover, the learners’ self-efficacy and Internet experience had no influence upon intention to use; nonetheless, self-efficacy was a significant factor in forming perception of ease of use. The study also revealed that male learners had more confidence in using technology as well as higher Internet experience, higher perception of system interactivity, and higher beliefs of usefulness and ease of use than female learners.
On another study by Lesh (2000), it evaluated the effectiveness of web-based education using multilevel evaluation. The objectives of the research were to show that students enrolled in a web-based course would have a positive reaction and to acquire knowledge from asynchronous learning experience as well as to demonstrate effective and efficient on-line pedagogical strategies. Students’ reaction to learning, achievement and cost-effectiveness related to asynchronous learning environments were measured. The analysis stated that the student reaction to learning was found to be significantly lower for web-based students compared with lecture-based students. Achievement was successful for both groups, nonetheless, no significant difference was identified between the performance level of the two groups. It also revealed that cumulative time demands for an experienced instructor to design and deliver a web based asynchronous learning experience were comparable to the time demands of a lecture based synchronous counterpart. The study also stated that web-based learning environment is equally effective as a lecture-based environment in terms of the learner achievement and faculty workload time demands.
And lastly, La Monica (2000) emphasized the role of the instructor in the e-learning process. According to the study, the instructors and students of Web-based courses agree fairly closely that the following elements are most important, course content is easy to follow and the regular feedback to the student is provided. The study concluded that students placed considerably more emphasis on the provision of adequate content and a clear statement of expectations by the instructor. Clearly, the instructors of web-based courses that participated in this survey believe they are frequently using the best practices identified in the literature. Student survey data, while not quite as favorable, does support their claim. This is encouraging news for both interested parties. Moreover, the study stated that the survey data does not support the notion that inexperienced instructors (instructors who have taught only one Web-based course) use best practices less frequently. Instead, it indicates that instructors are utilizing best practices regularly in their Web-based courses regardless of their level of expertise. This indicates a stronger knowledge base in new instructors about the requirements of effective online instruction than the researcher presumed.
Likewise, it is apparent from the survey data that, when these best practices are not utilized frequently, student opinion about the Web-based course suffers as a result. This supports all of the literature from which these best practices were derived. It behooves students and instructors of Web-based courses to continue to utilize these best practices as often as possible.
The E-learning Market
According to the International Data Corporation (IDC, 2001), the U.S. government at the federal, state and local level employs more than 20 million people. The size of the market for outsourced training was between .66 billion and .16 billion in 2000. Moreover, it is also expected to grow to between .3 billion and .87 billion in 2005.
The said agency also posited that by the end of 2004, ninety percent of U.S. colleges are expected to offer some form of distance learning. This idea is predominantly based on the table below.
Table 1. Heavy-Users of Internet Systems
The data shows that the heaviest users of e-learning are the computer and technology vendors. Moreover, only one percent behind is the financial sector that utilizes 30% of the total technology. The system on higher education, on the other hand, acquires 12% of the e-learning technologies. (IDC, 2001)
However, considering the relatively young stage of e-learning, the users inevitably encounter difficulties in acquiring the technology as a means of training and education. This is summarized in the table below.
Table 2. Company Users’ E-learning Challenges
Source: e-learning magazine User Survey, 2001
The table shows that company users stated that the bandwidth is their primary concern for the implementation of e-learning. Moreover, lack of interaction and cultural resistance among their keep acquired 41% of the responses individually. This means that majority of the users would be subjected to an impersonal training system where reinforcement and motivation would be intrapersonal in nature for the trainee.
On the other hand, the people engaged in higher education stated that cultural resistance is the main concern that they recognized in the implementation of e-learning. Moreover, 44% of the said population stated that the medium bandwidth where modes of instructions would be given is their secondary challenge. Finding the right bandwidth with the smallest margin of error would be one of the primary goals of the e-learning market. These data are summarized in the table below.
Table 3. Higher Education Users’ E-learning Challenges
Source: e-learning magazine User Survey, 2001
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