Consumer Behavior: The Case of Maladep
Table of Contents
TITLE PAGE…………………………………………………………………………………………….1
TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………………………………….2
I. Market Overview
1.1 Market Trend ……………………………………………………………………………3
1.2 Competition with Related Products/Services………………………………….3
1.3 Consumer Behavior on Shaving and Depilation……………………………..7
II. Analysis of Product Launch
2.1 Introduction, Adoption and Diffusion in the Market………………………….7
2.2 Characteristics of Consumers who adopted the product………………..12
2.3 Marketing Techniques to Stimulate Adoption………………………………..13
III. Analysis of Product Failure
3.1 Psychological Motivations………………………………………………………….17
3.2 Existing Depilatory Products in the Market…………………………………..19
3.3 Role of Peer Pressure and Behavioral Rituals………………………………20
IV. Research Reasons for Failure
4.1 Focus Group as Participative Technique……………………………………..21
4.2 Sample and Questionnaire…………………………………………………………22
V. Recommendations
5.1 Possible Re-launch…………………………………………………………………..23
5.2 Attitude Change……………………………………………………………………….24
I. Market Overview
1.1 Market Trend
Having a hair free body is essential for many women and also for men. Summer means less clothing, bikini clad bodies and ultra smooth limbs, so the demand for hair removing treatments becomes high. Fashion also dictates the type of hair removal treatments and clients. Currently, men are moving into bare skin. They are increasingly seeking the services of salons to have smooth, hair free chest and back (2004 ). Such practice is a new cultural phenomenon in the United States and in the Europe. Given the historical emphasis on the relationship between masculinity and the presence of hair, such shift indicates the changing ideals of attractiveness for men.
Industry types says that the growing interest of men in skin care and healthy living along with the quest for youthful look has been the trend. In the case of male body hair, women are helping the trend. There are a lot of women who do not like hair on men and men listen to them. According to the Nair Company, a survey of 1000 women found out that 90 percent of women from ages 18 to 44 find back hair unattractive among men. The company has released its roll on version of Nair for Men, a male depilatory cream. During the last five years, male grooming products and fashion magazines has awaken the sensibility in men (2003).
1.2. Competition with Related Products/Services
Depilation is a temporary hair removal which may include waxing, sugaring, tweezing, shaving and depilatory creams. Among beauty salons, waxing is the most commonly used method. It involves hot and cool waxing. The hot wax depilation method has long been established and was superseded by the cool wax method which is now used more extensively and there are many waxing systems available to provide this form of service to the clients (2004).
The oldest form of hair removal which has been passed down from generations to generations is sugaring. It is a mixture of sugar, water and lemon juice boiled to form sticky paste. Manufacturers have developed products similar to the process and safer to use. This sugar paste is thought to be gentler to the skin than other waxing methods because it can be used at a low temperature and natural ingredients do not cause much irritation to the skin (2004).
Plucking is used in salons but only for the eye brows. There is also a depilation machine available to the general public allowing the mass plucking of the hair that can be used in the legs and the arms.
Perhaps the most prevalent form of male depilation is through shaving. With this method, an electrical shaver or a wet razor is used with soap or a cream. The hair itself is cut off at the skin level and then grows apparently within 24-48 hours (2004). In the study by (2005), the most frequently reported methods for reducing and removing body hair were: regular razor, electric razor and electric clippers. Many also reported the used of shaving creams mainly with razor.
According to Euromonitor, the UK market for men’s shaving products reached EUR 134.6 million in retail value in 2004.
Figure 1. Sales of Shaving products in the UK in 2003-2004
At the world level pre and post shaving products accounted for EUR 2203 million in 2004.
Figure 2. Sales of Shaving products worldwide in 2003-2004
With the bulk of men’s grooming products, 42% of sales are razors and blades. This can be explained by the custom of shaving which men had over the years. The sales of men’s grooming products are expected to grow to an average annual rate of 4% to 2009 according to the Euromonitor. The growth is even fuelled by the increased penetration, new retail concepts and high value product launches. The strongest potential for growth is in the U.K., France, U.S. and South Korea ( 2005).
Shaving and the basics remain to dominate the market for men’s grooming. However, the offer in shaving products is getting more sophisticated and is shifting from simple shaving to skin care. The market is being transformed by new entrants and new offerings. More and more offerings are made in the retail markets. Nivea, Gillette, Mennen and L’Oreal are dominating the mass market. In the prestige channel, Biotherm and Nickel pioneered the market which was followed by global brands such as Clarins, Decleor and Clinique(2005).
The increased sophistication does not guarantee that the conventional basic shaving products will be abandoned. Sophisticated products provide more comfort and ease to users but it does impact on the price. Traditional brands are thus expected to continue offering their successful basic products but new developments in their products are likely to be done. Post shaving products and skin care products are also widely marketed. For instance, L’Oreal penetrated the men’s grooming market with the ‘L’Oreal Men Expert’ range which featured shaving products with an after shave representing skin care(2005).
1.3 Consumer Behavior on Shaving and Depilation
Body image issues were the key factors for body hair reduction and removal. The most significant reasons include cleanliness, sex appeal and body definition/muscularity. Males indicate that they feel cleaner and looked more refined or masculine after shaving or trimming their body hair. It has also been found that body depilation among males were tried on their own accord. It is interesting that men reported no external influences in their choice to shave which suggest that the idea was spontaneous in nature. Other factors include talking to someone about the experience, influenced by media and saw other people engage in the practice. Factors such as relationship status, off season of a sport and climactic differences are also likely to curtail shaving behaviors. Shaving and trimming become less important when males are not in romantic relationships. It also becomes less important during the off season of a sport and climactic off season (2005).
II. Analysis of Product Launch
2.1 Introduction, Adoption and Diffusion in the Market
In the process of developing new products, test marketing and commercialization are considered to be the final stages. Test marketing involves a set of commercial experiments to test the acceptability of the product and the appropriateness of the proposed marketing strategy. Such studies are conducted in one or more isolated geographic markets. The accumulated data is used to refine the marketing strategy and is necessary, the product itself. If the sales of the product have been adequate in the test market, commercialization follows. Commercialization follows the full scale production and the implementation of a marketing plan (2004). This stage marks the introductory stage of the life cycle of the product.
The timing of the new product introduction plays an essential role in determining its success and failure. Because of this, it becomes critical tom plan the commercialization of the products whilst the new product is being developed. The timely release of the new products must be carefully planned before its release. Effective market research can also be sued to develop messages that will create awareness among consumers and convince them about the effectiveness of the product. On the other hand, targeting must be more than advertising campaigns. It must establish closeness to the consumers as they consider the possibility of buying the product. Targeting the new product will entail attention to the competitive strategy of the firm which includes pricing, customer education, distribution and service. The extent in which each of these variables is addresses depends on the market, the availability of substitutes and the product itself (1993).
After the introduction of the product, the next objective is to acquire consumer acceptance. The process of product adoption requires the stages where the consumers learn about new products. Upon the awareness of the product, the consumer exhibits interest. If such attitude is sustained, the consumer is more likely to buy the product which may be considered to be the initial trial of the product. Such trial will either reinforce or reverse the initial impression of the consumer towards the product. Hence, product adoption takes place when the consumer decides to continue to purchase and use the product in a regular basis (2004). Despite such decision, the consumer will seek regular confirmation that the decision to adopt was correct.
The consumer adoption process can be classified as follows:
Diffusion is the process that describes the rate of adoption made by the consumers as a response to the new products. There are typically five categories of adopters: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority and the laggards (2004).
- Innovators are likely to become the first buyers of the new product. An approximate of two to three percent of the relevant market is compromised by this group. They are likely to belong in the younger, more affluent and more cosmopolitan group.
- Early Adopters are next to the innovators to try the product. They constitute at least 13 percent of the consumers. This group tends to be more locally oriented than the first group and is well respected within their communities. They are opinion leaders and are very influential in the buying pattern of other consumers
- The Early Majority constitute 34 percent of the target market. They are either slightly above the average in terms of social and economic status. This group is influenced by advertising activities and sales people as well as the Early Adopters.
- The Late Majority also constitute 34 percent of the target market. This group exhibit moiré resistance to change and risk taking as compared to previous groups. They tend to belong to the middle and older age group and are well off than average in terms of socio economic status.
- Laggards constitute the remaining 16 percent of the market and are the last to buy new products. This group is price conscious and low income. By the time they decided to buy the product, it has already reached its maturity.
Figure 3. Model of Product Adopters
Possible Reasons for Product Failure
Most product projects fail. An estimated 46 percent of the resources which a firm uses to conceptualize, develop and launch new products are spent on products that either fail commercially in the market or never make it to the market. For every four projects that enter the development process, only one becomes commercially successful (1993). There are many reasons why products fail.
Poor Marketing Research: the insufficient or faulty marketing research has been cited by mangers frequently as the number one cause of new product failure. This is brought about by the lack of thoroughness in identifying the real needs of the marketplace or in identifying the early signs of competitors taking the offensive. Managers are likely to misread the consumers needs, do little field testing and overly optimistic forecasts of market needs and acceptance. Another common mistake is to think that the products will be adequate to the consumer because it is perceived as such by the designers or the R&D department. The important thing here is to determine the real needs of the marketplace through market surveys and interpret them for product development (1993).
Bad Timing: The mistake of moving too slow or too fast stems from flawed planning, organization or control. Many failures of new products resulted from not moving quickly in a limited narrow window of opportunity. At some cases, there is a shift in the preferences of the consumers during the developmental cycle. The competitor may move more quickly to the new products and seize the market opportunity. The need to move quickly also creates problems. Rushing the development of new products leads to short cuts which when taken may result to disasters. As such, key steps and procedures are overlooked such as market studies and field trials (1993).
2.2 Characteristics of Consumers who adopted the product
One possibility for the apparent adoption is the cultural phenomenon known as the Metro sexual. This term has invented by Mark Simpson in 1994 as he described a narcissist in love not only with himself but also to his urban lifestyle; a straight man in touch with his feminine side. It can be referred to the fashion-conscious urban heterosexual man with a strong aesthetic sense. Mainly, he was addressing a man who has a higher rate of consumption. Until recently, the grooming needs of men are limited to products such as shampoo, soap, shaving and after shaving products. The evolution of social positions started the evolution of other needs (‘Understanding the Male Cosmetics Market’, 2005). Thus, fashion and cosmetic brands capitalized on metro sexuality to develop the market.
This heterosexual spends a great deal of time and money to improve and maintain his appearance and lifestyle. Other possibility may include the sales strategies adopted by companies to gain profit from untapped market segment. Heterosexual and gay men like women are subjected to the effects of media on their body image. The shift in the economic affluence of people also produces an increased equality between men and women. Pressure increases on men to take care of themselves better and do something to look more attractive to the audience (2005).
2.3 Marketing Techniques to Stimulate Adoption
For a specific product to be sold, the consumer has to know it exists. In this sense, the marketer has to communicate or promote the product in order to achieve a degree of awareness. The media is used as an effective tool to tell the consumers of the new product and perhaps about its trial incentives. For marketers, the introductory year is often an investment against the future profit potentials of the product. To promote the product, the company can incorporate the use of conventional media tools to technology advancements. In this way, the communication strategy will be able to meet the needs of a wide range of consumers.
The media choices are also a significant factor in the introduction of a new product in the market. This is simply because they serve as the key tool for conveying the message to the consumers. Thus, the effectiveness of the promotional campaign lies on the form of media chosen. Similarly, the message conveyed through the advertisement is greatly important for the simple reason that it creates a lasting impression on the consumer.
Advertising plays a pivotal role in the marketing communication activities of the company. It is the primary means by which the consumers are informed about a new or improved product. Most economies rely on the ability of advertising to produce and market products to the consumers. This can be done by communicating with the consumers of the latest products and be able to persuade them of the value associated with them (2004). For ad agencies that plan and implement ad campaigns, it is greatly important to know how advertising will work in order to be more efficient stewards of the various resources of the clients.
Advertisers and ad agencies continue to strive for creative advertising. Primarily, their work focuses on the developing a winning ad campaign that is at the same time revolutionary. However, despite the enormous effort they put in, only few ads become successful. Many of the ads remain modestly effective while others are ineffective at all. One of the reasons for this is the inattention to advertising (2004). Advertising images are useful in drawing the attention to the ad. Another role of these visual cues is to elicit certain emotion on whatever product the ad is selling. A simple example of drawing attention through images is an ad image in which someone looks directly on the spectator. This kind of ubiquitous device used by endorsers in TV commercials and magazine ads draws attention as to our real life tendencies of looking back when we are being looked at (1996). Indeed, ads can serve as devices for attention getting and emotion eliciting
According to (1993), one of the central characteristics of persuasive communication is that it is unwanted communication (1996). People do not usually seek extensive exposure to a multitude of advertisements. For this simple reason, advertisers may find it difficult to catch the viewer’s eyes through their intrinsic qualities. This task can be accomplished by the advertisers though the iconicity of visual images (1996).
The source communicator is also part of the properties of the message and is an important factor in attracting the attention of the consumers. Because of this, celebrities as endorsers have become a common choice among advertisers. In Great Britain, the number of celebrity endorsements has also increased in recent years. Research shows that one in five marketing communication campaigns in the United Kingdom features celebrities. The extensive use of celebrities for various product endorsements is practiced to help the ad stand out from other media clutter which in turn improves their communicative ability. Another advantage that is attributed to celebrity endorsements is the production of extensive PR leverage for brands/products. Aside from the promotion of already established brands, they can publicize new brand images, reposition brands or introduce new ones (
Sales promotion can also be used along with the advertising activities. In the United Kingdom, Sales promotion has become a big business as compared to advertising. Basically, it is the concept of adding value to the product or service to make that product stand out in the mind of the consumer. By this, the concept of incentivization can be introduced to the consumers allowing them to buy the product for a special reason. Like all marketing communication functions, the purpose of the sales promotion is to get the desired and the measurable objectives (2001).
Public Relations (PR) is another practice in the area of marketing communications. The Institute of Public Relations in UK defined public relation as the discipline that looks after reputation which aims to earn understanding and support and to influence the consumers’ opinion and behavior. PR differs in advertising in some respects. While the advertising is aimed to bring the product to the customer, PR aims to bring the customer to the product (2001). Public Relations as well as other communication programs contribute to the strategic goal of the firm to reach out to consumers. These reach out efforts increases the understanding of the group as well as their commitment, preference and loyalty to the product/service offered by the firm (1997). Clearly, there is the need to understand the motivations of consumers in designing the program to persuasively and effectively connect to them. The programs created will be effective at influencing, persuading and motivating if they are constructed with the wants, needs and motivations of the audience
Aside from the TV commercials and ads, the internet can also be used to cater to both advertising and marketing. Unlike the traditional advertisements, it can provide an advertising message which is more content-rich in terms of product information. Additionally, the maintenance of an online ad is less costly and is easily changed and updated (1999).The significance of the internet lies on the ability to be used as a communication device as well as a market, an information system and a manufacturing tool. The increase in productivity and reduction of costs can be considered its most attractive feature. Since the internet give rise to a wider marketplace, equal access to the marketing material of the company is given to consumers of different locations (2001). The web site can serve as an informational and promotional campaign at the same time. It will provide a venue for advertising the product whilst offering other promotions of the company.
III. Analysis of Product Failure
3.1 Psychological Motivations that hindered the acceptability in the market
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs suggested that humans satisfy the most basic objectives of their needs before they move to higher levels. Thus, an individual must satisfy psychological needs such as food before he/she will spend energy on less fundamental objectives. This hierarchy of needs is useful in understanding the needs of the consumers across cultures. However, it must not be taken literally since people frequently swing between their needs.
The buyer needs serves as the primary motivation for the thoughts, predispositions and actions that defines the potential buying process and the decision of whether or not to buy a new product. At any given point, a need is the difference between the present and the desired state of some focal aspect of humans. To the extent, that a potential satisfier or product fits a need, then it must be purchased. Beyond the biological and physiological system, individual needs can be cultural, social, psychological or a combination of any of this (1993).
As a rule, the less frequent, less urgent and shorter the duration of a need, the greater the likelihood that a buyer can postpone satisfying it. On the other hand, if the need becomes more frequent, more urgent and the duration becomes longer, the less it can be postponed. Moreover, the frequency of the occurrence of the need may not be so clear to the potential buyers. Thus, they can be expected to postpone it unless there is substantial enticement to try the product is established (1993).
Health and beauty care for men has not been a primary need until the recent years. Grooming products are limited to a few and shaving is the most widely used form of hair depilatory. Thus, the absence of the perceived need and inducement to try a new product could have hindered the acceptability of Maladep in the market. Aside from this, not all men are keen to hair depilation. With respect to body image, research in the area of clinical and counseling psychology found that men reported distress to their hair removal. Extreme anxiety related to hair removal might conceivably lead to social avoidance. Another area of concern was the injuries associated with the method of hair removal (2005). The popularity of depilatory creams is also challenged with the longer and lasting results of modern methods such as waxing.
Familiarity to established products can also hinder acceptance of new products. When confronted by new brands, consumers are likely to judge its probable characteristics. They purchase a particular brand because it is familiar and the familiarity is accentuated by various advertising activities. Thus, the consumers need to be persuaded to switch in the competing brand/products. Trying out the new brand is the key for it follows the possibility that the behaviors of repeatedly buying the same brand will be transferred to the brand/new product. Pricing and value for money are considered to be the principal factors in the decision of the consumers to buy. Price and sales promotion are the marketing variables which can be used in such cases (2000).
3.2 Existing Depilatory Products in the Market
The Gillette Company is a world leader in the male grooming which include blades, razors and shaving preparations. It holds the number one position among shaving products. The slogan ‘the best a man can get’ is used by the company to make the consumers believe about their razors and shaving products and the men who used them. The advertisement of Gillette has always promoted masculine values. Gillette razors are not just for men, they define men. In 1999, it found out that the UK hair-removing market was worth 0 m including disposable razors, creams and waxes and predicted a further increase of around 42% over the following years (2005). Indeed, Gillette managed to be on top of its competitors and has continuously dominated the market.
Figure 4. Gillette’s UK Market Share for Blades and Razors (1998)
3.3 Role of Peer Pressure and Behavioral Rituals
Men are found to actually enjoy shaving in part die to the belief that having facial hair is a sign of masculinity. For them, shaving seems to be a ritual of manhood rather than a chore. In this view, shaving proves that a man is indeed a man and good grooming proves that he is a respectable man. No matter what utensils are available, fashion trends and the perception of masculine power will continue to determine whether a man will shave.
Shaving is all about ritual. It is one of the few enduring ceremonies that continue to engage men no matter what society they live in. Anthropologists will argue that for every ritual to continue there are necessary elements: an artifact, a script and a ritual audience. Men shave with the knowledge they have acquired from their fathers and possibly form their grandfathers, brothers and uncles over the years. For most boys, the act is considered to be a masculine pursuit and an introduction to manhood (2001).
Even now, a youth who shaves for the first time looks in the mirror and sees a man. The repeated use of shaving implements becomes part of the gender construction in addition to the prevailing professional, class and religious association. The shaving man uses man made tool to reveal his face and groom his body before dealing with the outside world. This ritual has grown universally and endured generations.
IV. Research Reasons for Failure
4.1 Focus Group as a Participative Technique
A qualitative research methodology using focus groups can be used to research the reasons for the product failure. Unlike trials, experiments and other methods, qualitative research does not provide hard quantitative data which are subjected to statistical analysis. The main strength of this approach is to gain an in depth understanding of the topic to be explored. It can easily deal with concepts that are rather difficult to be quantified. For instance in the case of maladep, the psychological, emotional and cultural relationship between the user and the product. This form of research will discover some of the reasons why people behaved towards the product as they do or less tangible issues such as why they feel a certain way towards the product (2003).
The key benefit of this method is the ability of the marketing researcher to interact directly with the participants. The moderator can explore the responses and comments and further discover perceptions and views towards the product. The accuracy of comments can be probed by assessing non verbal cues and ask follow up questions to clarify responses. As such, there is a considerable amount of flexibility since questions may be added or modified in real time (2003). Participant scan also be motivated to give more responses as compared to typical surveys.
In addition to this, group members can react and build on the responses of others. As a result, the synergy leads to the emergence of information and ideas. A great mount of information can be acquired as compared to individual interviews and postal or electronic surveys. Focus groups can be used as an effective qualitative marketing research methodology. With this method, the researcher will be able to acquire the information as to how the people make decisions or what factors influence their use of products and services. It can be used to explore the new ideas for products and to differentiate between the perceived weaknesses and strengths of the competitors. This method can be useful because the interactive and the synergistic nature of group discussions allows for deeper insights into how and why people think and behave as they do (2003).
By focus groups, small number of people will be gathered together to discuss the particular topic. Typically, it will include seven to ten people sharing the common characteristics and experiences related to the topic. They can be done as precursors to quantitative methods such as surveys. They can also be used after surveys in which case to test the efficiency of the marketing concepts developed in the quantitative phase of the research.
4.2 Sample and Questionnaire
The participants will be chosen carefully through a purposive sampling technique by selecting the participants that belong to the specific user group. They must be reasonably knowledgeable of the topic and must be interested in talking about it. The criteria will include:
- Male
- Younger than the Average Age
- Above Average Salaries and Social Status
- Occupations that require physical appearance
- Engaged in Body Depilation
The participants will be limited to male since it may become uncomfortable to include gays although they are also uses of depilatory products. Aside from this, the core market for the product is the male group. The social and economic status will also be considered since males with much disposable incomes are more likely to purchase grooming products. Lastly, all participants must be engaged in a form of body depilation. This way, discussions can be made as to the perceived effectiveness of various depilatory products and the propensity to try new products such as Maladep.
The qualitative data will be collected through discussions using open ended questionnaires. ().
V. Recommendations
5.1 Possible Re-launch
Re-launching the failed product requires understanding the ways in which the product failed to meet the needs of the customers and the timing of the execution. The failure to the product during its launch in 1993 can be partly attributed to the timing when the product was launched. The emergence of grooming products was not visible until the recent years. This means that consumers may have reluctant to the use of the product during its initial launch. Aside from this, the number of competitors in terms of depilatory methods and products hindered the success in the market.
To this date, researches have shown that males are keener to use shaving products rather than other depilatory products. Even though sophisticated products are offered in the market, established products are likely to remain. Sophisticated products come with price and thus traditional products will continue to be offered with some modification and alterations. However, a re-launch would seem to be a viable option since the male depilatory market indicates a positive trend. Also, the presence of male depilatory creams such as Veet for Men and Nair products indicates the acceptability of this depilation method. The product can be re-launched under a different name and different packaging. But with the increasing competition in a market where there is over abundance of offer and slow take offs, there is the need to rediscover the marketing activities. The product must be able to cope with certain challenges such as the following
- Product must respond to the specific characteristics of male
- Product must be simple and effective to use
- Credibility as specialist of men’s grooming must be established
- Increase the value of the product to the target market
5.3 Attitude Change
Individuals encounter a multitude of object in the course of their daily lives. Basically, it is the individual’s attitudes that determine which objects are likeable or not. Attitude is what a person feel about a concept be it a brand, category, person or ideology. Therefore it serves as the evaluation of the object. In this respect, marketers are more concerned about the attitudes that form the consumers’ set of actions such as buying, using and eating. As people go about their environment, they are able to make salient beliefs about the judgments on an appropriate action such as rejecting, buying and recommending (2001).
Attitude change can be effected if and when the balance or a degree of consistency on the cognition, affect and conation is altered with the addition or introduction of a new salient belief. As such, the strength of influence of a salient belief is changed which results to the change in the evaluation of that held belief (2001). There are two different routes by which attitude change is effected. The peripheral route show how attitudes are temporarily changed with low involvement and elaboration.
Little reasoned evaluation is associated with celebrity endorsements of products especially when the consumers’ feelings towards the star/endorser become attached to the brand/products. Hence, the halo effects takes place since the attitude of the salient beliefs get to influence the attitudes about one another. The communication strategies take into account the consumer’s level of cognitive processing. Buyers are expected to engage and take the route that will effect attitude change. At most instances when the level of involvement is low, the advertisers resort to the peripheral route whereby, it is dominant in focusing on emotions ( 2001).
With the peripheral route, it becomes relatively simple to be able to create a connection with the audience by the presentation of things that may be found compelling. The strong impressions which are created with the use of endorsers increase the message recall level when the subject is weakly involved with it. These non relevant arguments associated with the peripheral routes are diverse and may include the attractiveness of the source, social role, etc. Given this, a message is accepted if it is associated with an attractive source or to a pleasant feeling. Persuasion in peripheral routes cues indicators. These persuasion cues are the factors natural to persuasion and sufficient to generate initial changes in attitude without having to engage in active thinking about the attributes of the subject (1996). With these simple cues, attitudes are adopted by the recipient without having to go through a careful analysis of the issue at hand.
If the audience for example does not have prior information about such issues and that they are perceived to have less personal relevance, the advertisers can persuade them by constantly reminding the persuasion cue associated with the attitude object. The frequency of these reminders is sometimes sufficient to let the consumers buy certain products (1996).
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