Research Approaches
Introduction
Methodologies are outlooks on research; they set out an image for what research is and how it should be carried out (1984). Basically, axioms and methods are connected to each other. Methods are tools or techniques of gathering of data, techniques of analysis, and techniques of writing. Since it is a tool, then a scrupulous method can often be used by many different methodologies (both qualitative and quantitative). Therefore, methodologies are at a more abstract (or general) level than are methods. Apparently, defined ‘methodology’ as a strategy or plan for achieving some goal. In contrast to this, methods are the tactics that can be used to service the goals of the methodology. In essence, methodologies provide the blueprints that prescribe how the tools should be used. Those prescriptions can be traced to the axioms — beliefs about how research should be conducted.
According to (2004), all research will possibly involve categorical or numerical data or data that can be use for analysis to help the researcher answer the research questions. (2004;) defined quantitative as a type of empirical knowledge. On the other hand, qualitative data are described in expressions of quality. Qualitative is the converse of quantitative, which more precisely describes data in terms of quantity (that is, using ‘formal’ numerical measurement). Basically, the major qualitative methodologies are: ethnography, ethnomethodology, reception studies, ecological psychology, symbolic interactionism, cultural studies, and textual analysis (1992). There may be other methodologies at the fringes of both quantitative and qualitative approach, and there might be qualitative scholars developing other methodologies. Apparently, this paper aims to discuss the issues concerning to both quantitative and qualitative research methods.
Discussions
Both Qualitative and Quantitative Researches are very important to consider in doing researches and studies. When writing about research methods it is a good idea evaluate the approaches and methods that you are using.
Quantitative Research
As stated by (2004), quantitative research is the systematic scientific investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships. Quantitative research is widely used in both the natural and social sciences, including physics, biology, psychology, sociology, geology, education, and journalism (1984). The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and hypotheses pertaining to natural phenomena. The process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides the fundamental connection between empirical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative relationships.
Virtually all research involve some numerical data or contain data that would usefully be quantified to help you answer your research question(s) and to meet your objectives. Quantitative data in quantitative research refers to all such data and can be a product of all research strategies. It can range from simple counts such as the frequency of occurrences to more complex data such as test scores or prices. To be useful these data need to be analyzed and interpreted. Quantitative analysis techniques assist this process. The range from creating simple tables or diagrams that show the frequency of occurrence through establishing statistical relationship between variables to complex statistical modeling.
Until the advent of powerful personal computers, data were analyzed either by hand of by using mainframe computers. The former of these was extremely time consuming and prone to error, the latter expensive. Fortunately, the by-hand or calculator ‘number-crunching’ and ‘charting’ elements of quantitative analysis have been incorporated into relative inexpensive personal-computer-based analysis software. These range from spreadsheets such as the Excel and Lotus to more advanced data management and statistical software packages such as Minitab, SAS, SPSS for Windows and Statview.
Actually, Quantitative research is generally approached using scientific methods which include:
· The generation of models, theories and hypotheses
· The development of instruments and methods for measurement
· Experimental control and manipulation of variables
· Collection of empirical data
· Modelling and analysis of data
· Evaluation of results
Quantitative research is often an iterative process whereby evidence is evaluated, theories and hypotheses are refined, technical advances are made, and so on. Virtually all research in physics is quantitative whereas research in other scientific disciplines, such as taxonomy and anatomy, may involve a combination of quantitative and other analytic approaches and methods.
Statistics in Quantitative Research
Statistics is the most widely used branch of mathematics in quantitative research outside of the physical sciences, and also finds applications within the physical sciences, such as in statistical mechanics. Statistical methods are used extensively within fields such as economics, social sciences and biology. Quantitative research using statistical methods typically begins with the collection of data based on a theory or hypothesis, followed by the application of descriptive or inferential statistical methods. Causal relationships are studied by manipulating factors thought to influence the phenomena of interest while controlling other variables relevant to the experimental outcomes ( 1984). In the field of health, for example, researchers might measure and study the relationship between dietary intake and measurable physiological effects such as weight loss, controlling for other key variables such as exercise. Quantitatively based opinion surveys are widely used in the media, with statistics such as the proportion of respondents in favor of a position commonly reported (1992). In opinion surveys, respondents are asked a set of structured questions and their responses are tabulated (1992). In the field of climate science, researchers compile and compare statistics such as temperature or atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide (1992).
On the other hand, empirical relationships and associations are also frequently studied by using some form of General linear model, non-linear model, or by using factor analysis. A fundamental principle in quantitative research is that correlation does not imply causation. This principle follows from the fact that it is always possible a spurious relationship exists for variables between which covariance is found in some degree. Associations may be examined between any combination of continuous and categorical variables using methods of statistics.
Qualitative Research
Basically, (2000) believes that qualitative research uses explanatory methods in describing the variables wherein the data, situations, or other facts collected will be explained or correlated with other data. According to them qualitative research methods are useful when conducting a study wherein the data are immeasurable, such as feelings, beliefs, thoughts, and others.
Moreover, (1984) stated that qualitative methods is important to management analysis, organisation studies and even to business development since it assist the researchers who desire to understand complex social phenomena. They are appropriate when seeking knowledge about the fundamental characteristics of a phenomenon being studied before theorising about it. This knowledge often surfaces through close contact with subjects of a study, allowing the researcher to understand their points of view about and experiences with the phenomenon.
Researchers even disagree on the definition of “qualitative.” For example, some researchers use terms such as naturalistic and descriptive, as well as field, product, and case study. Perhaps the best way to clear up some of the confusion about qualitative research is to examine some its most accepted methodologies and characteristics.
On the other hand, (1992) proposes that there are but three general types of data-gathering techniques in qualitative studies: experiencing, enquiring, and examining. These three techniques are used, argues, in such diverse qualitative approaches as case studies, non-participant observed studies, interviews, participant observation, phenomenology, ethnomethodology, enography, and ethnology. As (1992) notes, most qualitative research is based on a case study that uses one or several of these qualitative techniques, enabling researchers to immerse themselves within a culture or a context and producing questions to pursue for further research and understanding of phenomena.
As an extension of the qualitative technique of interviewing, (1991) propose that focus groups offer researchers a rich source in which to gather genuine information about participants’ perceptions, experiences, and attitudes which provide a basis from which to build theory. Another variation of interviewing techniques proposed by (1992) is the Delphi technique, which can be valuable in gathering data on a subject from a panel of experts.
For researchers who want to learn how to conduct qualitative research, numerous sources are available. (1993) present essays on interviews, focus groups, narrative analysis, critical incidents, and ethnographic analysis; (1987) offers good procedures for participant observations; (1988) describes conversation, narrative, and content analysis; (1988) provides guidelines for focus groups; and (1988) discusses interviews.
Importance of Qualitative Research
There are two factors which stand to achieve from the use of qualitative research inquisition. First, researchers gain not only because of increased ease of use to pre-existing viewpoint and the contextually responsive nature of methodologies such as life history, but also for the reason that qualitative research methodology helps researchers address the “singularity of values” (1993) so ubiquitous in past research efforts and understand the nature of “intercontextual work” (1992). According to (1993) second factor, the researched, benefit from qualitative research inquiry because the inquiry provides for more authentic texts and opportunities for personal empowerment and transformation.
On the other hand, (1991) argues that teacher understanding is a ‘multiplicity of personal, social, cultural and political influences’. Thus, research methods have shifted to reflect new ideas. Inquiry into teaching focuses more on self-images and voices of teachers, rather than the single values of the researcher. “Constructionist” and “interactionist” inquiries, argues , are being used to reflect the sophisticated contexts within which teachers operate. (1991) believes that it is a “process of meaning-making, grounded in the contexts of personal and social history” (). Apparently, (1987) asserts that qualitative researchers not only rebuff the conception of common context-free oversimplification but that delicate and interpersonal histories are mixed up in teaching and qualitative research is a scrupulous approach to data that is milieu sensitive.
Because of these more sensitive approaches to research, (1993) believes that such issues as gender, race, political and secular interests which may be part of an everyday language can be explored through qualitative methods. According to Bax the researcher’s values are only pan of the research and need to be reported as such. The voice of the researched offers a second reality. A third reality is offered by the social, cultural, political and economic contexts surrounding the life of the researched. The issue of reporting reality and knowledge in dominant research efforts was addressed by (1993) and was called an issue of “singularity of values”.
According to, dominant research, rooted in “mainstream questions and concerns and ethically normative findings, has communicated a singular ontology (philosophy of reality) and epistemology (philosophy of knowing and relating to the intended known, the other” () and has lead to the singularity of values, history and accounts in research efforts. Thus, according to him, qualitative inquiry with its greater emphasis on one to one correspondence and its opposition to a priori thinking leads to a greater diversity and representation of the individual and collective values. No longer are researchers the ultimate authority in qualitative research inquiry, ownership is a negotiation between both researchers and researched. Furthermore, Bax claims that power shifts among those involved in the research, roles become flexible, the boundaries of old blurred and changed which ultimately benefit both researcher and researched.
Because qualitative research inquiry addresses issues of authority, interpretation, and reinterpretation in the construction of accounts, authentic texts which appropriately represent the researched are possible. The voice of the researched is valued and given a central place in qualitative research inquiry. A second benefit is that, contructivist, critical, participatory methodologies such as qualitative research inquiry address issues of adequacy and authenticity of text and potentially empower, and transform the researched (1993).
Conclusions
With respect to legitimacy and sufficiency and changing roles, a number of researchers ( 1993; 1992) raise additional related issues of ethics, rigor, fidelity, plausibility, and consistency, concealment of research intent and imbalanced researcher /researched perspectives. According to (1993), authentic and adequate accounts demand that researchers: choose newer experimental forms of research, forms which consider problems of interpretation and authority; produce knowledge that is transformative; examine the ethics and morality of their work; write texts that are open-ended and subject to multiple interpretations.
In conclusion, qualitative and quantitative research methods benefit both the researched and researcher communities in diverse ways, thus this kind of research method is definitely an important factor in organisation, business and management development. The researched become agents of knowledge, co-creators scrutinizing the authenticity of texts, while researchers have a mode of textual and inter-contextual analysis and are privy to processes which have ethical safeguards. Researchers therefore have the opportunity to develop a wider understanding of schooling and individual choices through collaborative research.
From the previous discussion, one final distinction should be made between the broad nature of analysing quantitative data and the analysis of qualitative data. By and large, analysing within the positivistic tradition, attempts to be objective, and involves the researcher standing back from the data during the analysis. On the other hand, in the interpretative tradition, the respondents has a potentially much greater influence upon the analytic process, the researcher and the respondent engage in a much more interactive process, and during the data collection the respondent may in a variety of ways influence the ideas of the researcher towards data analysis. If this has happened in a research, then it is very important to reflect upon this process in as much detail as possible. These processes are often very complex, and it is not always easy to illuminate them, but again an attempt at this can help the reader of research paper to make sense of analytic procedures.
Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com
0 comments:
Post a Comment