Research Articles Base: Religious Practices

Sample Paper of the Religious World of the Ashkenaz Jews

This paper will try to discuss the religious world of the Ashkenaz jews. It will specifically compare state and describe the religious practices that is being practiced by Ashkenaz  men and women. This paper will highlight the differences and distinction between male and female Ashkenaz individuals with regards to the religious traditions that they practice. Although this paper will express the religious practices of the Ashkenaz Jewish society, it must be clear that the scope of this study is the medieval and the early modern period only.             The Ashkenaz Jews are Jews descended from the medieval Jewish communities of the Rhineland. Many of them later migrated, largely eastward, forming communities in Germany, Poland, Austria, Eastern Europe and elsewhere between the 10th and 19th centuries. From medieval times until the mid-20th century, the lingua franca among Ashkenazi Jews was Yiddish or Slavic languages such as the now extinct Knaanic.[1]  They also developed a distinct culture and liturgy influenced by interaction with surrounding nations.             The religious world of the men and women of the Ashkenaz society is different and diverse because of cultural, sociological and religious factors. The jewish society is a patriarchal society and therefore the men have the prime role in family, societal matters as well as in religious affairs.[2] Men are the major characters in worship services and other decision making processes in the community and inside the family. The women, mother, daughter, sister are merely delegated to do household task and works like cleaning the house, taking care of the baby and cooking food.             In religious matters and worships, there is an apparent neglect on the condition of Ashkenaz women. Few women learn Hebrew as the language of scholarly communication and this is the main reason why there is no comprehensive history and literacy legacy describing the role and importance of women. Women are also excluded from the arenas of public religious services like the Hassidic gatherings. Women also do not count as one of the minimum numbers of ten adults required as a quorum for public prayer.[3] Women cannot also lead a service and sat behind a partition. Because of these myriad of restrictions, a look at the religious world of the Ashkenaz women would require a different medium and a different approach to probe and to study the concept.             One of the prime tools to study and to probe the religious world of the Ashkenaz women is the tkhines. Tkhines are prayers that women recite and memorize and because they are commonly used by women, this offers us an inside insight on the nature of religion and worship when viewed from a feminist perspective. There are specific tkhines describing customs making memorial candles for the dead and references to the matriarchs of Jewish history like Sarah, Rebecca, Rachel, Leah and other women of the Bible.[4] Tkhines also describes and illustrates ordinary events in a day. Some of these tkhines are hallah which is a tkhines in separating a small portion of dough for priestly tithes, middah, for marital separation during and after menstration. Tkhines are also used with events such as pregnancy, birth, recovery from illness, drought and livelihood. Unlike men, women upon entering the synagogues recite a tkhines since she cannot understand the Hebrew liturgy. By carefully studying the tkhines, we can see that the main subject of these prayers is connected with the family and private domain of the women while men predominantly adhere to the social and public aspect of worship since men pray and worship together while tkhines are often recited inside the houses, bathhouses, cemetery with specific connotations to important family events such as birth, pregnancy and menstruation.  We cam also say that Jewish Ashkenaz women perform a double religious service, they practice the Sabbath, fasts, holidays, prayed from the prayer book and maintained a holy marital life while performing another religious celebration centered on their family life and the events that occur inside the household.[5] Although both men and women Ashkenaz Jews observe and practice the Sabbath, women are more burdened in preparing and organizing this religious event. Men only perform Sabbath by praying in the synagogues while women are laden with the responsibility lighting candles, baking the Sabbath loaf and making the Sabbathic kugel or pudding. The religious practices of the women therefore are centered on the area that they spend most of their time, which is inside the family. A specific example of this hypothesis is the hallah which is a tkhines that is uttered in separating a small portion of dough.  The first part of the hallah is taken from a Biblical verse in Numbers 15:20 and an interpretation of a text that came from Proverbs 8:21.[6] The hallah also narrated the history, biblical tithes and states of Israel since the destruction of the Temple. The hallah is also important since it contains instructions and descriptions on how to prepare the dough. It provides instructions such as using forty-three eggs and two quartz of flour in making a dough. The hallah and the separation of a small portion of the dough is accompanied by a prayer that went like this: …thus may my mizwah of hallah be accepted; that my children be feed by the dear God, be blessed with great mercy and comapssion. May this mizwah of hallah be accounted as if I had given the tithe.[7]   This tkhines further stated other themes like the desire to perform hallah properly, the continued association of hallah with receiving adequate nourishment and the desire for the forgiveness of sin. The tkhines can also be a vehicle for the Jewish Ashkenaz woman to actually say and to internalize what she feels with regards to religion and worship.  A tkhines for candle lighting illustrates this point when a woman utters: …Lord of the world, may my mizwah of kindling the light be accepted like the mizwah of the high priest who kindled the light in the dear temple.[8]                         The woman who is uttering this tkhines when lighting candles does not present herself as an ordinary woman but as a high priest in a temple doing his duty. This part of the tkhines therefore illustrates that because of the lack of voice and power of the women with regards to religious matters, they use these prayers and tkhines to implicitly state what they feel during religious services. Tkhines are also used to commemorate and describe ordinary task such as putting a loaf of bread in the oven. In this prayer, the woman uttering the prayer is asking God to bless and guard the bread from overcooking. This act illustrates how ordinary Ashkenaz women merge ordinary work inside the household with religion and worship. Women also developed tkhines and prayers that speak of the humble attitude of women with regards to Sabbath preparation.             Another tkhines that gives emphasis to the role of women in Ashkenazi society are prayer that touches the subject of menstruation. These tkhines deals with the observance of menstrual avoidance, menstrual inspection and ritual immersions.[9] This tkhines dealing with the subject of menstrual separation are important since it illustrates the meticulous observance of this practice thru songs. These tkhines are also important since it provides the women of an avenue to share and to transmit their oral histories and traditions thru the use of prayers and songs. Tkhines that deals with menstruation and avoidance  are also significant since it illustrates that prayers and religion is a ready vehicle in transmitting cultures and tradition in the absence of literature and writing among Ashkenazi women.             Aside from the reference materials, another source consulted is the book  Jewish Liturgy written by Ismar Elbogen. Basically it describes the same conditions and characteristics of women inside the Ashkenazi society. Women were excluded from reading the Torah and other religious materials since they are not taught to read.[10] Because of this problem, the Ashkenazi society decided to translate the Scriptures into phrases and words that can be easily understood by the women. This translation was flawed since only a select few verses and stories from the Scriptures are translated, other stories such as the story of Reuben and the story of the golden calf found in Exodus are excluded since these stories highlighted the negative actions of the Jewish people.[11] It is safe to assume therefore that even if the society offers help to women in understanding and reading the Scripture, this help is incomplete and lacking in its totality.                                   	 Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Sample Paper of the Religious World of the Ashkenaz Jews

This paper will try to discuss the religious world of the Ashkenaz jews. It will specifically compare state and describe the religious pra...

DARNAY PROBLEM

Darnay was a teenage girl and is being blessed with a beautiful and pretty long hair. Darnay haven’t seen her mother since she was a child and she lives together with her grandmother, Norma and because Darnay cannot pronounce her grandma’s name that right so she called her granny as Noma. Darnay’s hair was her best asset a girl as people intend to praise her for having a pretty hair which others don not have. She always felt something unusual inside her stomach and probably felt butterflies inside. Aside, Darnay never thought that hair is important and that in fact, hair symbolizes a true indication of purity and calmness of soul and sincerity of the heart. In most medieval epoch and even in some aspects of the baroque and romanticism period, a lady’s hair were being considered sacred as it does not only speaks of the person but also provide the woman great power of dominance and respect from the men. Moreover, later in the story, Darnay’s grandmother, Noma have noticed that something is bothering her and have asked Darnay of what’s really on with her and then, Darnay confessed to her grandmother that she was pregnant and Noma was a bit shocked of what Darnay told her and ask her what are she is going to do with the situation?               Moreover, Darnay thought that there was no room for a baby and felt depressed of the reality. The problem of Darnay as compared to the teenage girls of the present is just the same when, getting pregnant often, undergoes stage of confusion and uncertainties of the matter, maybe thinking that there is no chance of getting out with the problem but to escape from what is true and maybe thinking of doing something to release the feeling of tension and wariness on their part. Darnay passed through that stage of confusion and a way in getting through it was to allow Sister Carol to cut her long pretty hair and amicably sold her hair just to have money in her pocket as Darnay was already pressured of the reality that she is pregnant and maybe felt by her stomach – a sense of nervousness of what might happen next to her and she was thinking that if her hair was cut and become a wig, her mother may bought it. Furthermore, unplanned decision of cutting hair what really strikes Darnay and that, it is true that reality bites and there is no other way out to bring the times when she thinks she have made the wrong decision and move as there is still enough space for her in the society.               Then, after cutting her pretty hair, Darnay felt awkward of how might people will react on her and thought if people from the shop would still recognize her as girl with pretty hair. Darnay has somewhat lost her personality – the unique identity that is inside her that really denotes and imply who she really was and because of the fact that she was pregnant, everything was damaged, the possibility of a good life and career ahead of her. Darnay’s hair should not be a way out of escaping the problem after all, nothing has changed, the fact still remains that she is pregnant and no matter what, she will be having a baby soon. Darnay has allowed pressures and confusion to control her emotions not strong enough to stand still and accept responsibility and the feeling of uncertainty has invaded Darnay to decide so fast and for sure in some way, she felt guilty for the action she has taken. Life is not to be judged in just a minute of hitting a target for example, just to realize everything needs a careful reflection before taking the action or else. you will be trapped inside full of regrets in your heart just like the main character in the literature story Good Hurricane Florinda, written by Greg  Johnson. Thus, Darnay is maybe upset of letting the pressure of pregnancy ruled her that made her decide to sell her pretty hair and because she will be a mother soon she thinks that if the child will turned out to be a girl, she will name the child – Florinda as the crucial time in her life happened during a hurricane.    Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

DARNAY PROBLEM

Darnay was a teenage girl and is being blessed with a beautiful and pretty long hair. Darnay haven’t seen her mother since...

Religion and its Function in the Society

Religion is commonly understood as the set of beliefs and practices held by a community or group. As a belief system, it affects the values, customs, rites and the behavioral patterns of its followers. Religion may affect the individual, the community and the nation in general. It plays a crucial role in the society.             The primary function of religion in the society is to explain to the people their origins, the nature of life, the functions and purpose of life and the reasons for their existence. In the past, it is used as a control mechanism or a way of obtaining order. Religion may dictate a set of accepted standards and those who wants to remain in that society must practice adherence to those standards.             The most fundamental aspect in all religions is the concept of relationships. This relationship may be physical or spiritual, real or imagined. Devotee can communicate in formal and organized manner as with a priest or a shaman. Communication can also be informal where the individual can communicate anytime. In this regard, individuals rely on religious objects. Beliefs and values are also essential to the religion. The values that a society holds are often incorporated to those of the religion. Together they form the morality of the society. This morality is reflected in the laws and regulations governing the community.             Religion can be considered as a social process which results from the human minds and social entities that are passed down from generation to generation. As a product of the society it is related to other social products including politics, economics, law, music and art. However, it has its own power which when born can develop and generate rules. Generally, it is only essential to the people belonging to the community or culture where the religion existed. Religion is transferable from culture to culture although the process is difficult.             Most religions tend to focus of the figure of God while others have more than one God either as an object or subject of worship. The dependence on religious symbols is prevalent in all religions as with the belief in the reincarnation or the life after death. Religious practices are varied due to the diversity of cultures and the direction human chose in order to make sense of the world. There are practices that are written in documents that serve as enlightenment to the follower. For the Christians there is the bible, the Vedas for the Hindus, the Talmud for the Jews, the Koran for the Muslims and Confucian writings for the Chinese (Murphy, 1999).             Religions also hold the presence of a divine creator that existed in a world of suffering and pain. They have introduced an evil being or an adversary to the God. The Judaeo and Christian Religions have a Satan, in Hinduism they have the Ashi and Shiva, and Buddhism has Mara and some mischievous figures in other African religions. In addition to this, most of the religions also give importance to the concept of death and burial. People greatly differ in the treatment of this phenomenon but hey view it as a significant social event             Indeed, world’s religions differ in some aspect but also share certain commonalities. While they may have different sets of values, beliefs and practices, these religions ultimately contribute to man’s understanding of his world and the formation of the society. The Development of Hinduism             Hinduism originated in the Indian subcontinent. Its origins are traced back from the vedic civilization and have no known founder. Hinduism provides a wide range of scriptures which expound on theology, philosophy and mythology. Among these scriptures, Vedas and the Upanishads are considered to be the foremost in importance. Among the prominent themes of this religion are the Dharma, Samsara, Karma and the Moksa.             Over time, the beliefs and practices of the people who migrate in the continent took up residence and interacted so that the modern tradition is a mixture of influences brought together. The Aryans became the dominant forces in northern India and gradually their influences spread to the south. The indo Europeans were nomadic, pastoral people and their religious practices were transferable. When they arrived in India, they took with them the sacred language of Sanskrit, a belief in the deities, religious practices centered on fire practices and a hierarchal social structure. The earliest religious compositions are the Indo European texts called the Vedas.             The word veda meant knowledge and the information contained in the texts are necessary in performing sacred fire rituals. Each of the vedic collections has three kinds of additional material. The first is called the Brahmanas which describes the rules for rituals and provides explanation for their purpose and meaning. The second are the compositions of the forest or the aranyakas which supplements the Brahmanas focusing on the rites. Finally, the Upanishads which further developed the ideas of the aranyakas by explaining the true nature and meaning of the rituals when the focus is shifting away from the performance towards knowledge.             When the Upanisadic religion (Brahmanism) evolved out of the Vedism (Brahmanism), it has fallen to the same exclusivity that may have called it into existence. While suffering is alleviated with mediation and the samadhi, the results are rather temporary. Permanent conditions are possible only for those whose guna nature fits the yoga of knowledge that leads to moksa. Brahmanism identified the causes of samsara as ignorance and the desire with stress on the former. Since ignorance can be overcome by knowledge and that ability depends on the guna nature, the way to knowledge and release form the samsara would be the exclusive prerogative of the Brahmins (Herman, 1991, p.88).             The discussion of Hindu views of self is completed in consideration of two familiar notions, karma and yoga. Karma is often associated with fatalism and reincarnation and yoga practiced to improve health and well being. The law of karma guarantees that since actions produce consequences, no effort is in vain. Therefore the right efforts rightly applied yield right results and the appropriate yoga rightly applied leads to the expected results. The Gita tells the sufferer that the prescription given to solve the problem by treating the causes is guaranteed to work because the entire process is in the hands of the powerful person or principle. Generally, this principle is the law of karma and that person is the Lord Krsna. He possesses extraordinary powers and that power gives him the ability to annul the effects of karma thus making him more powerful than karma itself (Herman, 1991, p.128). Buddhism             Buddhism is a dharmic religion and philosophy. It is also known as the Buddha Dharma or Dhamma. Buddhism denies the existence of a creator God but recognizes the existence of supernatural beings such as gods and spirits. Buddhists in Asia do not use the term ‘Bhuddism’ to refer to their religion and refer to it as the Dharma (law) or the Buddha-sasana (teachings of the Buddha). The foundation of the Buddhist ethics is the belief in the sacredness of life. This ideal was promoted by the unorthodox renouncer movements such as the Buddhism and Jainism. Animal sacrifice was rejected by both as cruel and barbaric (Keown, 1999, p.99). The core doctrines are contained in a series of interlinked propositions known as the Four Noble Truths. The ultimate goal of Buddhism is to end suffering and rebirth.  An individual who completes the state of self realization is said to achieve nirvana which is considered to be the final and highest good. The truth perceived by Buddha during his enlightenment was set forth in his sermon which includes interlinked proposition known. The Four noble truths assert that (1) life is suffering, (2) suffering is caused by craving (3)suffering will have an end and (4) there is a path that leads to the end of the suffering (Keown, 1993, p.43).               The truth of suffering is supplied with Buddha’s vision of three of the four signs- the old man, the sick man and the corpses and the realization that life is full of all kinds of sufferings and unhappiness. Although the place life was comfortable, Buddha yearned for spiritual satisfaction. This disaffection is represented in the four visits of Buddha outside the palace. . Buddha encountered an old man and was struck by the discovery of old age. In the second journey, he encountered a sick man and in the third a corpse being carried to the cremation ground. With these experiences, he realized the passing nature of human existence and that nothing can keep suffering and death. On the fourth trip, Buddha encountered a religious mendicant and was inspired with the idea that he can seek spiritual solution to the problems of humans (Keown, 1993, p.43).           The eight fold path is known as the ‘middle way’ because it guides the direction between the life of indulgence and that of harsh austerity. It is composed of eight factors that are divided into three categories of morality, mediation and wisdom. These define the limitation of human good and determine where the scope for human flourishing lies. In morality, the virtues are perfected while the intellectual virtues are developed in the category of wisdom             This eight fold path exemplifies the ways in which morality, wisdom and mediation are to be developed continually. Right View means the acceptance of the Buddhist teachings. Right Resolve means committing to the development of right attitudes. Right Speech means telling the truth and speaking in sensitive way. Right Action means abstaining from wrongful behaviors while abstaining from occupations harmful to others is referred to the Right Livelihood. Right Effort means talking control of one’s thought and developing positive state of mind. Right Mindfulness is the cultivation of constant awareness while Right Mediation is the development of a deep sense mental calm (Keown, 1996, p. 54).     Taoism and Confucianism           Confucianism was started by Confucius who explored and elaborated on the principles of what was to become Confucianism. The co existence of Confucianism with other religions has enabled the Confucians to engage in dialogue with many different doctrines. One of the aspects of Confucian religion is collective rituals. Individual Confucians engage themselves in a set of spiritual practices in which a sense of eternity is sought in the pursuit of secular learning and discipline (Yao, 2000, p.190).             The Confucian understanding believes that the world is sustained by three ultimate (sanji), which are also called the three powers of the universe (sancai); tian (heaven), di (earth) and ren (humans). These three powers work together so that heaven and earth and humans are the origins of all things. The heaven generates them, earth nourishes them and humans perfect them (Yao, 2000, p.139). Confucian masters focus on how to apply the principles that govern heaven and earth to human life and society and how to find the Way to maintain a harmonious world. Taoism is the most distinct contribution of the Chinese in the religious thought. It teaches harmonious living with the universe. The Tao of a man is to be natural and not to live artificially. This is the quietism of Taoism and in this regard, it opposes Confucianism with its rules, morality and artificial knowledge (Parrinder & Harrap, 1963, p.82). Its teaching is against the imposed rules and in favor of inward peace. The wise man that rules through the Tao allows spontaneous development. He works by wu wei, non action activity. If there is difficulty ion governing the people, it is because of their ruler’s interference and if they are left alone they would be naturally good. This teaching assumes that he others will be influenced by the wise men though his example and no words. Taoism is both religious and moral. It identifies Tao with heaven and illustrates the union with Tao makes the spirit immortal. The things showing Tao’s greatness are kindness, frugality and service.             Zen is the Japanese form of the Chinese word Ch’an and Sanskrit Dhyana which means meditation. It refuses to base itself in scriptures and has a low view of book learning. In Zen monasteries, sacred texts are recited and one of the most popular is the Kwannon. Zen adept seeks enlightenment which is said to come like a flash of insight. It became the inspiration of Japanese military classes mainly because discipline appealed to the soldiers (Parrander & Harrap, 1963, p.71). Japan also has its ancient indigenous religion called the Shinto. It was not literate until the Chinese came and then the Japanese with their flair of adaptation lent heavily on Buddhism and to some extent Taoism and Confucianism. The sanctuaries of Shinto are surrounded by trees on hills or near the sea expressing the love of nature which is characteristic to the Japanese. The most effective and influential of Shinto movements are the sectarian or church organizations that have grown to the modern times. Some of these sects are referred to as the Pure Shinto because their teachings are traditional. They engage in pilgrimages and some in magical practices, faith healing and walking in fire. The largest are the faith healing sects which have historical founders, sacred scriptures and are influenced by Buddhism and Christianity (Parrander & Harrap, 1963, p. 95). Judaism, Christianity and Islam           The great stream of religious thought that came from the Western word arose in Palestine and Arabia. Judaism and Christianity and then Islam that are great monotheistic religions believed in one God and in his righteousness and universality.             Judaism is the religious front from which Christianity and to some extent Islam derived their view of God and the universe. During the twelfth century A.D. Moses Maimonides set out the thirteen articles of faith which became the accepted covenant of Jewish beliefs. First is the faith in God as the creator, his unity, formlessness, eternity and all knowledge. He alone must be worshipped. Then comes the belief in the words of the prophets, in Moses as the chief of the prophets, belief in the Law (Torah) and the belief in its changelessness. Lastly, there is the belief in the rewards and punishment, in the coming of the Messiah and the resurrection of the dead (Parrander & Harrap, 1963, p. 160).              Christianity is the largest of all the religions. It centers on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth which is presented in the New Testament. Christians believed Jesus as the Son of Goad and the Messiah prophesied in the Old Testament. Among its largest Christian organization is the Roman Catholic Church. It stresses a great place of devotion for the virgin Mary. There is similar devotion in the Eastern Orthodox Churches but these doctrines have not been decreed. Protestant and Anglican churches have rejected this devotion. The Roman Catholic worship centers in the mass. It is fundamentally the Eucharist or the Holy Communion which other churches celebrate in memory of Christ’s crucifixion (Parrander & Harrap, 1963, p.188)           Muhammad, the founder of Islam lived in Arabia during the sixth century A.D. Even before his time, Mecca has been a place of pilgrimage containing idols of pagan gods and goddesses although there was no religious literature before his time. The religion taught by Muhammad is called Islam which meant ‘surrender’ (to God), ‘submission’ and ‘resignation’. The follower of Islam is called Muslim and he is a surrendered man. The name for God, Allah simply means ‘the God’ and is best rendered to the English word God because it is close to the Jewish and Christian usage (Parrander & Harrap, 1963, p.125).             The Quoran is considered by the Muslims as eternal and the uncreated word of God. So holy this book, no criticism of it is allowed. In fact it is believed that Quoran holds the place in Islam that Christ holds in Christianity as the living word of God. The principal religious teachings of the Islam are in the five pillars foundations: Witness, Prayer, Alms, Fasting and Pilgrimage. The Witness is the confession of faith represented in the formula which makes a Muslim. Prayer is performed by Muslims five times daily and is observed regularly. One of the religious duties is almsgiving to the poor and the mosque. No collection of money is doe for the mosque services but people give money to the needy. Fasting is obligatory on all adult and healthy Muslims during the day hours in the month of Ramadan. And lastly, Muslims must be performed the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their lifetime (Parrander & Harrap, 1963, p.134). Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Religion and its Function in the Society

Religion is commonly understood as the set of beliefs and practices held by a community or group. As a belief system, it affects the value...

Father Divine an African American Charismatic Religious Man

Father Divine: An African American Charismatic Religious Man   Historical Background               Known as Father Divine, . was an African American ghetto in the Deep South most likely in Georgia and predictably a son of sharecroppers. According to some data revealed by scholars who deeply involved in the study, Father Divine worked as a gardener in Baltimore, Maryland then found himself in a sojourn to California, where he became oriented to the New Thought Movement. Scholars unanimously agreed that Father Divine’s exposition to the New Thought Movement greatly influenced his life and latter on in his spiritual, political, and social life (retrieved June 25, 2008).             Father Divine’s heretical proclamation that he was a “God clothed in human flesh” supplanted complex issues and at the same time attracted many followers, majority of them were fellow Black Americans. However, Father Divine leaved many legacies to his fellow followers and to the America itself, one of which was the establishment of today’s known International Peace Movement. Moreover, his role in the Period of Depression made people appreciate his kindness and authenticity of service.  While he tried to assemble a new religious order with theological foundation rooted in the New Thought Movement, he was ostracized by his neighbors due to insensitivity to the peace order of the neighborhood, with such cases; he became notorious, arrested and went to prison many times. Father Divine: An Advocate of Civil Rights and Racial Equality             In the journal article written by  entitled : Father Divine’s Vernacular Architecture of Intention, he praised Father Divine’s legacy to the historical, social and religious material culture of America quoting verbatim: “through purchasing, restoring, re-using, and preserving many different types of American and domestic commercial structures, Father Divine and followers developed a theology of material culture and historic preservation that expressed a major theological perspective of their belief system – to spiritualize the material and to materialize the spiritual – all in the service of God and for the transformation of human nature (2004).” This commentary expressed by the author gives us an idea on how Father Divine, despite of all the controversies and notorieties he created, cannot be denied the fact that he helped transform the life of the Americans.             Moreover, the significance of Father Divine’s advocacy on racial equality and civil rights were considered valuable. Although, these drive derived from his religious and spiritual orientation, it only shows how positive thinking and the ability of transforming such into action is important. In this age, when “religion is no longer significant marker or determinant of identity and community in the modern world (  2004:)”, it was a different case in the time of Father Divine, wherein religion stands as a backdrop for activism and social transformation.             In  book entitled: , he credited Father Divine’s work as a “civil rights leader, which campaigns were precursors to the civil rights struggles of 50’s and 60’s”, this action made him considered not only a religious and spiritual leader but accidental a “social critic” and one of the first ministers to reintroduce “social relief” and “political activism” to the Black Church. Moreover, Wiesbrot’s critical investigation on Father Divine’s role in the social and economic fields, led  (1992) in his dissertation paper, that Father Divine’s social actions “rested on his religious leadership and that those social, political, and economic programs maybe understood only in the light of his theological orientation (p. xi).”             Moreover, (1999), in his article delivered during a conference entitled: , cited Father Divine as part of the “morass of racism and anti-cult prejudice to conclude that he created an original philosophy of positive thinking, and helped thousand of impoverished followers to escape the worst miseries of the Great Depression and influential as early advocator of racial equality.” Meanwhile, Henry Louis Gates Jr. in his article published in New York Times, agreed on such significant contribution of Father Divine, in fact a “serious, sincere, and honest religious leader and civil rights advocate.”             In contrast,  book , criticized  significant role as merely a man who is “a ruthless black autocratic who amassed millions of dollars in assets and surrounded himself with lovely young women (1953)”, even he enforced in his followers the austerity on celibacy.   Father Divine: The God             The theological foundation of Father Divine was influenced by the emerging and influential movement of his time, the New Thought Movement. Such movement emphasized primarily on the idea of positive thinking as a means of transforming and producing positive life force. Because of this doctrinal belief, Father Divine, in his well articulated and charismatic preaching believed that even “poverty can be avoided” only if and when one condition his mind to think positively because poverty is only in mind.             Not only his charismatic preaching attracts followers of the same race and of few whites, but also his self-proclaimed identity as “God” magnate numbers of followers, instead of despairingly treat him.             In  (1997) article ?”: Images of Christ in African American Painting, situated the significance of the concept of “God” as not only a “white God”, and therefore, the example made by  which illustrates clearly the struggle of Black religious concept of God, was that of Father Divine’s self-proclaimed “God”.  justified that this conscious attribution of Father Divine would trace the search of African American concept of God that tempered a racial slur that God is only white color.             Moreover, Father Divine’s religious organization used different religious and spiritual name codes as part of its tradition. Though, he had married twice he still practiced celibacy and abstention in sexual activities.               Again, the Father Divine’s significant role was not only restricted to social, economic, and spiritual system but also extends further in the political order. examines the implication of Father Divine’s interracial romance with his wives as archetype of racial equality. In his article: Romance and Rights: The Politics of Interracial Intimacy, 1945-1954, Robinson exemplifies his theory by using the case of Father Divine’s marriage bond with white women. He noted that “Father Divine like any other Afro-American personages championed the cause of interracial romance (2007).” This in Robinson’s understanding sparks debates over the effects of their unions had on the “civil rights movement.” Conclusion             In this short essay, I presented selected important information about Father Divine, his significance contribution to the development and formation of the American material culture, racial equality, and civil rights advocacy.             Moreover, his meeting with the New Thought Movement sparks a great influence on his theological and spiritual formation as far as his religious organization is concern. Although, he was regarded indifferently and being labeled as heretical and “ruthless Black autocratic” man, we cannot deny his great contribution not only on the spiritual and religious formation of Americans but what became more significant was his struggle to advocate civil rights and racial equality among his fellow Negroes.                           Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Father Divine an African American Charismatic Religious Man

Father Divine: An African American Charismatic Religious Man Historical Background Known as Father Divine, . was an A...

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Kabbala               Kabbala may be viewed in three ways: 1) a key for interpreting the Torah; 2) the essence of the Hebrew Bible; 3) and a system of religious mysticism in Judaism providing insight into the divine. Kabbala refers to the doctrines about God, the creation of the universe, the law of nature, as well as the path to discovering these doctrines. Originally, Kabbala refers to the full body of publicly known Jewish teachings that evolved to become Jewish oral law. In recent usage, the word refers to the reasons for understanding the commandments enshrined in the Torah and the unfolding of events contained in the Hebrew Bible. At present Kabbala integrates Jewish oral law and spirituality. Despite the different ways of viewing Kabbala, its necessary ties to the Torah, as its context, is absolute. Kabbala represents the Torah’s expression of the way the world works. Relative to science and philosophy, where philosophy is a system of scientific beliefs, Kabbala is the system of beliefs associated with the Torah. Similar to science, the Torah provides people with perceivable facts using the senses and reason and similar to philosophy it provides a comprehensive abstract picture based on facts.             Kabbala is important because it provides a process for discovering meaning in the Torah and understanding the various commandments. It is also important as a system governing way of life consistent with the commandments and teachings derived from the Torah. It is a guide to spirituality because it serves as an important link of an individual with the divine that traverses all spheres of a person’s life from perceptions, actions and interactions. Dhikr             Dhikr is an Arabic term translated in English as invocation, pronouncement or remembrance. Dhikr is the remembrance of God as enshrined in the Qur’an. Engaging in Dhikr is having awareness of God. This is a devotional act engaged into by Muslims, which involves the repetition of words and phrases such as the name of God, invocations or supplications and certain aphorisms from the Qur’an and hadith literature. Repeated phrases are subhanu llah translated as ‘Oh God Almighty’; al-hamdu li-llah translated as ‘praise be to God” laa ilaha illa llah translated as ‘there is no god but God’; Allah or God; allahu akbar translated as ‘God is greater’; and astaghfiru llah translated as ‘I ask for God’s forgiveness’. Dhikr involves musical recitations or spiritual songs different from ordinary songs. Dhikr represents the manner by which Muslims remember or become aware of God.             Dhikr is an important aspect of religious mysticism of Muslims because it is through engagement in this devotional activity that they experience the presence of God. Dhikr takes the form of a religious praise or devotion because it is a manner of glorifying God. It also takes the form of communicating with God to give praise or ask for forgiveness. Dhikr also serves as a path to being in the presence of God. The activity is done individually or as a group. Dhikr is a manner of expressing spirituality by individuals and as a manner of affirming one’s faith to God and to fellow Muslims when done in a group. This practice is an integral part of Muslim religious mysticism.   Mandala             Generally, mandala refers to a chart, plan or geometric pattern signifying the cosmos or a smaller representation of the universe from the human perspective. In Buddhism, a mandala is used in meditation particularly the center of the circle as a focal point, which explains why mandala circles are crafted in geometric shapes that divert the attention of the eyes towards the center. Mandalas are representations of the landscape embodying Buddha or an enlightened visualization of Buddha. Mandalas are symbols of impermanence, which is a basic teaching in Buddhism. The purpose of the mandalas is the attainment of enlightenment and achievement of an accurate view of reality that when translated to action puts an end to human suffering. Meditations using mandalas is a way of discovering divinity that exist within one’s self. In Hinduism, a mandala represents the human view of the universe. Although mandalas are circular, the patterns depicted around the circle shows Hindu cosmology with the surface of the earth as square representing the four corners of the earth correlated to the sunrise and sunset and the north and south. The mandalas also show the relations of the different planets and heavenly bodies and the presence of supernatural forces.             Mandalas are important as symbols of the worldview of Buddhists and Hindus. However, these are not mere symbols because these are integral to the meditation process in Buddhism in achieving enlightenment and essential to Hinduism as guides in finding their relation to the universe.  Ganesh             Ganesh is a Sanskrit word translated in English as ‘lord of the hosts’. Ganesh is a well-known and revered representation of god. He is the first-born son of the gods Shiva and Parvati. The first syllable of his name ‘ga’ means intellect and the second syllable ‘na’ means wisdom. Ganesh is considered as the epitome of intellect and wisdom. His physical depiction is a pot-bellied yellow or red god with four arms and the head of an elephant with only one tusk. Like every representation of god in Hinduism, the Ganesh archetype is accorded with various meanings and symbolism about a state of perfection and the different ways of achieving perfection. Ganesh represents cosmic balance, between different schisms such as male and female, force and kindness, power and beauty. He also represents the ability to discern or distinguish between truth and illusion or the real and unreal. Ganesh represents the attainment of balance and order in one’s life through the achievement of divinity within one’s self.             Ganesh is important not only as a spiritual icon but also as a guide to the day-to-day activities of people. He is the lord of good fortune so that people invoke his grace in every undertaking. His physical manifestation indicates the different values serving as guide to people seeking balance and order. The elephant head pertains to intelligence, fidelity and discriminative power, the single task with the ability to overcome dualism, wide ears denotes wisdom, curved trunk means intellectual potential, pot-belly means infinite universes, position of legs refers to the existence in both material and spiritual world, and four arms refers to the intellect, mind, ego and a conditioned conscience.             Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

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Kabbala Kabbala may be viewed in three ways: 1) a key for interpreting the Torah; 2) the essence of the Hebrew Bible; 3) ...

HINDU RELIGION AND TRADITIONS

Hinduism             Religions can be treated as a major part of the culture as they are largely seen to dictate the members’ methods of living and also their norms, thus establishing a particular culture based on their beliefs. Hinduism is considered to be one of the largest religions all over the world. The countries where Hinduism is mostly practiced are within India and Nepal. This religion has its own distinction from other religions present around the world, and also continues to be one of the oldest ( 1981: 83)..             As is expected with the various religions, differences with regards to the beliefs, traditions, practices, and cosmology of Hinduism are obvious due to the background. It is with a thorough investigation of their background that there will be a clearer understanding of the practice.   Cosmogony             The beginnings of the Hinduism practice can be found in several sources, one of which is the  . Other accounts may vary although there are still some similarities in the ways in which they are portrayed. One of the most common is the presence of the Vaak which is the cosmic womb from which everything comes from and from which the god Brahma comes from—or sometimes Brahma himself. The entire premise of the Hindu idea is the cyclic terms of life in which Brahma is to live for 100 years before dying and being reborn, taking the universe with him.  (1994) has also pointed out that the rise of the female goddesses take root in the Hindu texts with several passages, one of which is the material force and the structure that they bring to the universe.   Cosmology             The Hindu cyclic belief has been discussed as based on their belief in which the good Brahma will become reborn and as such depend on sidereal astrology wherein the time period is mostly focused on the cosmic bodies such as the stars, moon, and stars. The orbits of these bodies help with keeping track of the eventual days and the years before the destruction of the universe and the recycling of the world.  Evolution of the things in the world are based on the cyclic events and the material lines that help with the transformation or evolution of the things within the world (1999).   Analysis of Hinduism             As based on the findings in this essay, the practices, the perspectives, and the beliefs of the Hindus can thus be assessed, from which assessment of the type of religion it can be classified to can be taken. There are three types of religion, and the one where Hinduism belongs to is the historic type of religion wherein the culture and the practices are based on the traditions that are being dictated upon them. There is also the greater emphasis on how they must be able to work in relationship with each other, and it is through this that the Hindu ideas are also given their eventual direction.   References   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

HINDU RELIGION AND TRADITIONS

Hinduism Religions can be treated as a major part of the culture as they are largely seen to dictate the members’ methods of ...

Human Sacrifices of the Mayans, Aztec and Incans

Human Sacrifice: Mayans, Aztec and Incans   Introduction             In the history, there are different civilizations that exist and these ancient civilizations have their own traditions, rituals, and customs. Early civilizations include Mayans, Aztec, and Incans and these three have noted to consider human sacrifices.  This paper will discuss the human sacrifices of each of the civilization.   Human Sacrifice in Mayans             Among the Mayans, warfare was considerably different from contemporary battle in which opposing forces tries to destroy their enemies completely on the battlefield. First of, Mayans were divided into city states which would at times be at peace with one another or under different situations fight with each other. The goal of this is to take prisoners of wars.  Those who belong in the lower status are usually considered as slaves of their captor and those with higher status captives were scheduled as a human or ritual sacrifice.  Accordingly, the deliberate human sacrifice was noted to be necessary to sanctify specific ritual occasions like ascendancy to the throne of a new ruler or to dedicate the human life for a new building. In nature, the capture of a rival leader was highly prized in Mayan culture, as the sacrifices of the unfortunate person lent extra importance to grace specific occasion. The common approach of such a sacrifice was decapitation or beheading in a public ceremony (Schele, & Moller, 1992) . Other than this, the favored approach in post-classic period was a trick which they acquired from the Mexican cultures to the north, which is the heart removal.             Mayans considered sacrificing women and children as often as men. That victim was stripped and painted in blue before being led to the temple or courtyard where they would be placed face up over a convex altar.  The legs and arms of the victim were held by appointed priests while a fourth, which is known as nacom would penetrate the chest of the victim with a flint knife just below the left breast then handle the knife with another priest who will smear the blood on the idol in which the sacrifice was done for. If the sacrifice is done in a pyramid, the corpse would be thrown towards the courtyard below where the priest of lower rank would skin the human sacrifice except for the feet and hands. The skin was used by officiating priest who would solemnly dance among the crowd. if the victim had been an specifically brave warrior his body might be butchered in to pieces and the nobles and the crowd will eat their body.  Bow and arrow were also used for human sacrifice. As evidence to their rituals, Bishop de Landa, have reported seeing Sacred Cenote which is located at Chichen-itza to contain skeletons of women, men and children who were said to be sacrificial victims.   AZTEC SACRIFICE             Although it seems that Mayan’s human sacrifice were all but morbid, historians note that Aztecs of Central Mexico looks even more morbid as they sacrificed 20,000 people in a single ceremony to commemorate the dedication for a new temple and afterwards, these human flesh were eaten. it is hard to understand the extent for the ritual sacrifice done by Aztec who kills approximately 20,000  people per year by the royalty. The captives were all taken at the top of the pyramids where, Aztecs cut their chests and ripped their hearts out. The bodies of the victims were tossed down the steps of the pyramids.   According to some studies, the motivation for this ritual sacrifice is the context of tonally which is known as animating spirit (Carrasco, 1999). In humans, tonally was believed to be found in the blood that concentrates in the heat when a person is afraid. Such belief, explains the hunger of the gods for the heart and without this humans sacrifice, all motions stops, even the moment of the sun; hence, when Aztecs were conducting their sacrifices, they believe that they are keeping the sun from halting in its orbit. In particular, the god who they believe was thirstier of the blood was their war god Huitzilopochtli.  On one hand, the gentler and kinder god was Quetzalcoatl who only wants animal sacrifices like snakes and butterflies.  The victims of such rituals were commonly warriors who have been captured by Aztecs in battles or tributes from vassal states offering human for sacrifice.  Another reason for this ritual is cannibalism (Ortiz de Montellano, 1983). After the hearts of the victims were removed and their bodies tossed on the steps of the temples, the limbs were also removed for cooking.  However, only those who are in the royalty are allowed to engage in cannibalism and their favorite is the thighs and hands.   Inca human Sacrifice Aside from Mayans and Aztext, Incan empire was also known to engage in human and ritual sacrifices.  Incas are said to be less violent compared to Aztecs during their expansionist politics. Local leaders kept their ranks and functions but their sons were brought to Cuzco and grew up in Incan beliefs, spirits and religion.  Human sacrifice was done when they are celebrating mythic events dedicated to their gods.  As children were noted to be pure beings, they were the sacrificial lamb most of the time and they are brought to the gods to guaranty eternal life of the spirits in the world of divinities.  In the 1990s, some archaeologists have found at Mound LLullailaco, tombs that proves the practice of the Incans for ritual sacrifice. Ancient Incan chose children whose ages range from 6-15, took care of them until they grow fat for a year and sent them on a sacrifice pilgrimage.  These children had their hair cut first a year and half before their sacrifice.  Daughters and sons of local leaders were selected for sacrifice, in this manner; the Incans spread fear into their governed populations. Some girls we put under the custody of priestesses around the age four then will be given as wives to local nobles, some are made as priestesses and other are being sacrificed.  3-4 months before the actual ritual, the children are starting the pilgrimage to the heights of the Andes (Religion-Cults, 2009). The priests accompanied their children and during their ritual journey, incantations, dances were done. Because of tiredness, altitude sickness which are usually caused by low oxygen and administered drugs, children who were sacrificed are mostly semiconscious.  Some are being left to succumb because of the exposure to coldness, but others experienced horrific death.   Conclusion             Based on the discussion above, it can be said that three ancient civilizations are considering human sacrifices because of different beliefs and rituals; however, most are done to serve their gods.  It seems that Aztecs are more morbid in killing compared to Mayans and Incans. But it is really a saddening thought that even children are being put as a sacrifice just to deliver to their gods.   Reference   Carrasco, D.  (1999). City of Sacrifice: The Aztec Empire and the Role of Violence in Civilization. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.   Ortiz de Montellano, BR.  (June 1983). “Counting Skulls: Comment on the Aztec Cannibalism Theory of Harner-Harris”. American Anthropologist (Arlington, VA: American Anthropological Association) 85 (2): pp.403–406.   Hispanic-American Indians (2009). Online available at http://www.religion-cults.com/Ancient/America/Hispano-American%20.htm. retrieve February 20, 2009.   Schele, L and Miller, ME  (1992). Blood of Kings: Dynasty and Ritual in Maya Art.     Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Human Sacrifices of the Mayans, Aztec and Incans

Human Sacrifice: Mayans, Aztec and Incans Introduction In the history, there are different civilizations that exist and ...

Filipino Religiosity and the Blatant Corruption in our Midst

A Striking Contrast: Two Opposing Identities in One Filipino religiosity is no doubt a trait that commonly sets us apart from the rest of the world. We have this belief in God that is clearly shown by the sprouting and proliferation of so-called Christian Churches in the archipelago, besides the fact that ours is a predominantly Catholic country, considered as Asia’s center of Christianity. What is noticeable in this situation is the presumption that being such a Christian country, Filipinos, the whole population of this Christian land, are all God-fearing and spotless when it comes to morals, government, religious matters, and everything associated with financial affairs. That presumption is a false impression–a reputation imposed upon us by our ancestors to uphold, as well as by the Spanish friars who instilled in our forefathers’ hearts and minds the idea that it is only through submissiveness to the teachings of the Church can one attain wealth reserved in heaven, that this influence in the way they thought about religiousness bound us to the rigors of holiness and subjugated our ways, belief, and practices to conform to the requirements of maintaining the impression of being a religious bunch of people. The strength of that subjection resulted to fanaticism, if not downright belief in what is not fully understood elements of saintliness. That process of imbibing the homilies carried out in the pulpits of preachers continues to this day, linking the churchgoers of by-gone era and of the present times. The sad truth, however, is that a certain brand of religiousness comes most of the time in the form of outward observance of traditions, the basis of which, if traced back to its roots, is devoid of connection to the true Christianity as recorded in the annals of history. This sad fact can be easily demonstrated by no less than the observance of certain holidays which are supposedly rooted from the true religion founded in the earliest times but which historical records reveal otherwise. Without due diligence in looking back to the origins of that which are considered religious ways of living, one may be tempted to accept with open arms and with eyes closed the veracity of claims of such religiousness. This excludes the benefit of the doubt. In the same line of reasoning, consider the idea behind the justice system that we and almost all other countries have: that of having courts of law. It would seem incredible to anyone who does not know about what is written in the Bible that it is against the Holy Scriptures to file a suit against a brother in faith or a fellow Christian. So why do we have courts and lawyers to defend or to prosecute, Christian undertaking legal proceedings against another Christian? The mere fact that we have the Constitution and government officials enforcing the laws–laws which are apart and different from the Law in the Bible– even if some may contend that the laws of the land are in harmony with the spirit of the Law given by God, still proves that we have gone beyond what is written, that is, by establishing our own laws and government, we have departed from the original plan of bringing all people into subjection to no other laws but the law of God. It is for this reason that those people under the law of men, being apart from the sacred laws, are no longer bounded by the words of God originally intended to rule the heart of every man that blatant corruption is a clear proof and manifestation of the falseness of any claim of religiousness on the part of people in the government. It is no surprise that this stain in the reputation of Filipinos goes side by side with the supposed religiousness of our people. Another explanation to the mingling of religiousness and corruption prevalent in our country can be offered. This smear in our identity as a people is not an isolated case. It is a universal phenomenon but varies only in degree. What could be behind this seemingly contradictory state taking form in one and the same people? Examination of this question discloses an obvious answer: the question is wrong in the first place. It is because we cannot treat the whole population as one person any more than each of us cannot assume two sharply contrasting personalities at the same time. Those taking part in the corruption must not be viewed as identical with those who are completely innocent of the corrupt practices. Thus, the idea that we are both corrupt and religious at the same time is a mere illusion. Moreover, people are not programmed like robots or computers so that whatever the programmer wished the programmed machine to do would be done exactly without any grumble. People have the free will to decide for themselves whatever they want to do. This free will is what Judases in the government take advantage of that they feel it is their privilege to steal or plunder. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Filipino Religiosity and the Blatant Corruption in our Midst

A Striking Contrast: Two Opposing Identities in One Filipino religiosity is no doubt a trait that commonly sets us apart from the rest ...