Research Articles Base: Hypothesis Testing

RESEARCH QUESTION/HYPOTHESIS

INTRODUCTION                 This paper proposes to conduct a dissertation that will explore the factors that determine the use of the female image in advertising. The female image has long been being used in art, with the example of nude paintings. Females are also being used in modern advertising by countless popular brands. This study will investigate the reasons for that and differences between the female image and the male image when used in advertising.  It will try to know how the female image communicates with the consumers and how this affects their purchasing behavior.             The aim of the study is to collect various data that will answer many questions about the use of female image in advertising. Data will be collected from literatures and will be analyzed with content analysis. Several cases will also be reviewed and will be presented in the form of case studies. Semiotics will also be conducted and questionnaires will be formulated to survey related respondents such as the general consumers of products where female models are prevalently used in its advertisement.             The reason why this topic was chosen is to be able to advance the understanding of the female image in advertising by compiling the available amount of information about it and surveying respondents.   RESEARCH QUESTION/HYPOTHESIS   In the congested times of commercial ad, using females in advertising dominates the market. In skincare, commodity ad, females are unlimitedly used as leading actors. Even in man-world ad such as ties, mobiles, suites etc. That deliberately indicates females seem adorable, soft, and subject to males. The dissertation is to expatiate of how come being “the second sex” for last thousands of years becomes “the first sex” in modern commercial ad (just in quantity)? Why female image in ad is such ruled? Discovering that modern value and aesthetic sense on female, the real society and cultural condition of female.               With that being said, the objectives of the study will be as follows:     1.         To improve the understanding toward the use of female image in Asian advertising. 2.         To determine if the portrayal of female in Asian advertisements are fair and not sexually discriminating. 3.         To contribute to mass communication studies by determining how the female image communicate to people. 4.         To determine the views of the audience toward female TV commercial models. 5.         To analyze the role of female in Asian advertising and to give recommendations for improvement of the situation.               Then, the study will explore the following research questions:   1.      Is there statistical proof that female models are being preferred in Asian commercials? 2.      What are the reasons why females are being used as advertising models in modern commercial ads? 3.      What are the psychological effects of the female image on consumers? 4.      What is the difference between the female image and the male image in terms of advertising? 5.      What is the aesthetic behind the female image and how does it relate with the roles they portray in Asian commercial ad?   Hypothesis The first hypothesis of the study is that: “Females are generally more preferred in commercial ads than males because they are more attractive to the eye, can generate more emotions and more sexual in nature than men”.   The following sub-questions will be addressed to help test the mentioned hypothesis:   1.                  How does the female image in commercial ads appeal to men? 2.                  Does the female image also appeal to females? 3.                  Can female generate more emotions than men? 4.                  Do females have more sex appeal than men for both sexes? 5.                  Are females more visually attractive than men? 6.                  Why does the audience like to view females in TV commercials? 7.                  Are there any stereotypes in the audience toward females in TV commercials?   On the other hand, the second hypothesis is: “stereotypical views on females on advertising are prevalent among men”   For the second hypothesis, the following sub-questions will be answered:     1.         Do most men have stereotypical opinions on females in TV advertisements? 2.         Do men always use sexist language on female models in TV advertisements? 3.         Do males always refer to the physical appearance or attractiveness of the female TV advertisement model and look at them as a sexual object?     It is important to note that the discussion of the questions mentioned above must be in context to Asian commercials. This is one way of limiting the scope of the research and thus guide the researcher in the collection of data needed. If the questions are to be answered generally, the scope of the research will be too big and there is greater tendency to sway away from the main idea.   LITERATURE REVIEW     Female Image in the History of Art                 The female image is commonly used for the arts since the time man though about it. Many literatures that talk about classic arts depict the use of females as models (Barcan, 2004). Literatures about female nudity are enormous in fine arts and pornography (Barcan, 2004). Body is a feminized term in the Western philosophical tradition and nakedness is the feminized opposite to nudity. Furthermore, most nudes in art are females (Barcan, 2004).             In medieval art, the female form is most represented by Eve from the story of creation where females are portrayed as weak against temptations (Ross, 1996). Females also symbolize lust in this age, as can be reflected from several arts on Saint Antony depicting his strength to withdraw temptation (Ross, 1996). This can also be reflected from arts for Bacchus, the Greek god of wine, was females are part of drinking parties and sexual orgies. On the contrary, female figures were also used for some religious depictions in the medieval age. They are used for symbolism of what is holy such as St. Clare or the Virgin Mary, and something more symbolic such as Terra or Mother Nature (Ross, 1996).             In English art, women are also portrayed and modelled as holy, or as angels or saints, or prophets (Evans, 1949). The same can be said during the renaissance age. Literatures about the Italian art during that age mostly relate the female body with beauty, and being slender and soft (Berenson, 1953).             In modern art, females are painted either as nude or for industrial images or household images (Lake and Maillard, 1956).   Female Image in Modern Ad and Cultural Connotation               Women have typically viewed their bodies as “objects”, with physical beauty determining how they and others judge their overall value (Martin and Gentry, 1997). This maybe linked with culture and society and how men chose to perceive them. In advertising, the image of the woman should be beautiful or sexy (Napoli, Murgolo-Poore, and Boudville, 2003). Women should be portrayed as objects of sexual desire that are also attractive, thin and young (Lambiase et al, 1999; Napoli, Murgolo-Poore, and Boudville, 2003). There is a growing obsession with dieting among women just to achieve the image they see in print and television advertisements (Napoli, Murgolo-Poore, and Boudville, 2003). Researchers questioned whether the female images portrayed in these publications reinforce prevailing stereotypes of women and support unrealistic body ideals (Napoli, Murgolo-Poore, and Boudville, 2003). Body image aside, there is not much to be proud of on how women are being portrayed. Adult women in American society are portrayed in advertisements as passive, deferent towards men, lack intelligence or credibility, and being punished for high levels of effort (Kolbe & Abanese, 1996; Napoli, Murgolo-Poore, and Boudville, 2003). On the contrary to that, men are being portrayed as constructive, powerful, autonomous and achieving (Kolbe and Abanese, 1996; Napoli, Murgolo-Poore, and Boudville, 2003). Furthermore, women are still mostly portrayed vane, or being more concerned with appearance and younger than men (Ford et al, 1998).               Courtney and Lockeretz (1971) found the following stereotypes on women in American advertising in magazines: a woman’s place is in the home; women do not make important decisions or do important things; and men regard women primarily as sexual objects: they are not interested in women as people. Today, even without empirical basis, we can see on the television, the Internet and magazines how the role of women in advertising changed. More and more women are now taking the executive and business-like role. But is this really the case? Whitelock and Jackson (1997) found in their research TV commercial in France and UK that females are play younger roles, more likely to be portrayed in a dependency role (e.g. spouse, parent, housewife) or be a product user. They are rarely portrayed as authority figures, either as on-screen characters or as voice-overs.               Siu and Kai-Ming Au (1997) also found the following findings in various literatures: over 80 per cent of voice-overs are male; women are often depicted as housewives, mothers and/or sex objects; and females are shown as product users, whereas males are usually shown in roles of authority. In their study, they found that the same scenario is taking place in China but on a different light. The following results were revealed: “Male central characters appeared mostly in products used by either sex, whereas comparatively more female central characters appeared in products used by females only. Male voices were much more likely than female voices to be used in voice-overs. Women were portrayed more often to be younger than men. Men were more likely to be portrayed in independent roles, whereas women were portrayed in roles relative to others. Women were portrayed as low-level workers whereas men appeared primarily as professional entertainers or middle- to high-level business executives. Women were portrayed as relatively inactive whereas men were portrayed as much more active in sports and physical activity” (Siu and Kai-Ming Au, 1997)               George, Heartley and Paris (2001) explored the representation of female athletes in visual and textual media and found several barriers. The researcher found the frequent use of the sexist language like the word ‘girl’. They also found that there were tendency to highlight the physical appearances of female athletes. George, Heartley and Paris (2001) emphasized that the characteristics of sportswomen portrayed by the media tend to be physical characteristics and sexual desirability, thus trivializing the achievements of female athletes and reducing them to sexual objects.               The cultural portrayal on females can be reflected from Hofstede’s cultural theory of masculinity and femininity. In masculinity versus femininity, masculinity is the preference for achievement, heroism, assertiveness and material success; while femininity refers to a preference for relationships, modesty, caring for the weak and the quality of life (Hofstede, 1980). In a male type of society, competition is tolerated. People focus more on status building and not on personal relationships. On the other hand, a female society is a society classified by interpersonal and interdependent relationships, a concern for others, the over all quality of life, and de fine relatively overlapping social roles for males and females. As can be reflected from Hofstede’s theory, females are being associated with warmth and obviously being stereotyped as being uncompetitive.               In Wiles et al’s (1995) investigation on gender biases in advertising in Netherlands, Sweden and USA, they found that all three countries more likely to show men in working roles rather than women (less than 10 per cent within each nation) in magazine advertising. They are more likely to present men as high-level executives (Wiles et al, 1995). They also found in the historical perspective that advertising in the US has the following characteristics: most women were shown in non-working roles, often in the home; women that were shown in occupational roles were shown in secretarial, clerical or blue collar positions; non-working women were pictured mainly as decorative (non-active, pictured primarily for display or aesthetic purposes); and women were depicted as having very limited purchasing power (Wiles et al, 1995).               In another study, Mitchell and Taylor (1990) investigated three women’s magazine in the UK – Woman’s Own, Vogue, and Cosmopolitan – and found that the highest prevalence of stereotyping is physical attractiveness, followed by housewife, and then as a sex object. On the other hand, other low frequency female stereotyping includes portrayal of women in non-traditional activities, being career oriented, and voice of authority.               In terms of physical looks, Wan, Faber and Fung (2003) sought to determine if body image disturbance and eating disorder are now also prevalent in Asia. They emphasized that idealized images in advertising will be viewed as having a negative connotation and be seen as socially undesirable because it promotes to the audience the messages it emphasize, for instance, the accepted thinness among women, and that being fat or not slim or slender is undesirable. Basically, the messages that advertisement on women depicts are so persuasive that the audience is commonly forced to believe that they should adopt the same pattern of looks. As a result, this becomes associated with low self-esteem and eating disorders.   SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The study will be significant to marketing researchers because the results that will soon be collated might help structure more constructive roles for females in advertisement. The views of the television audience will be important in the development of the female role in advertising because they will give insights on how the gender is viewed and how it is stereotyped. Furthermore, the study will also reveal if the prevalence of female in advertisements a good thing or not. As cited, a lot of stereotypes still exist in female portrayal in advertisement and this might also reflect from the audiences’ point of view. However, it is expected that stereotypes will be more prevalent from male group’s point of view.   METHODS AND PROCEDURES                 This section of the proposal will be discussing the methods and procedures that will be used in gathering the data needed to be analyzed in order for the research questions to be answered and the research objectives to be achieved. There are a number of aspects that need to be discussed to ensure that only the most relevant information will be obtained. This will also ensure that time and resources will be saved since mistakes can be minimized. The overall research design, sampling methods and instrumentation will be presented in the following pages. The research process of the study can be best illustrated with the use of the “Research Process Onion” (see Figure 1). The Onion refers to the central issue of collecting the data needed to answer the research questions. Important layers of the onion must be peeled away. The first layer raises the question of the research philosophy to adopt. The second considers the subject of research approach that flows from the research philosophy. The third examines the research strategy most applicable. The fourth layer refers to the time horizon a researcher applies to his research, and the fifth layer is the data collection methods to be used (Saunders et al., 2003). Positivism will be used as the research philosophy, while the deductive approach will be the research approach to be used because the research is dedicated to deducing hypothesis or expressing and testing hypothesis in operational term. Figure 1: The Research Process Onion     Research Design               The research design that will be used in the research is the descriptive method. Descriptive research intends to present facts concerning the nature and status of a situation, as it exists at the time of the study (Creswell, 1994). It is also concerned with relationships and practices that exist, beliefs and processes that are ongoing, effects that are being felt, or trends that are developing. In addition, such approach tries to describe present conditions, events or systems based on the impressions or reactions of the respondents of the research (Creswell, 1994). In addition, the descriptive method is widely used in studies concerning behavioral sciences. This means that this method will be able to capture the essence of the study, which is to investigate the considerations for the wide use of female models in advertisements. The use of the descriptive method also suggests that the research will be focusing on obtaining qualitative data. Qualitative research is an umbrella that refers to various research traditions and strategies. This type of research design was chosen since it gives emphasis to attitudes and beliefs of that explain the way they interpret and make sense of their world.   Participants and Sampling Method               The respondents for the research are men and women randomly picked. It is important that the participants be chosen in a random manner to ensure good representation of the population. In doing so, the researcher will be able to limit margins for generalization. The random selection of the participants will also be a form of precaution in order to minimize the effects of error variability, which will be discussed later on. This means that the participants of the research have different demographic characteristics as well.   In the beginning, the expanse of the demographic differences among the participants of the research proved to be problem that needs to be addressed immediately. It was recognized by the researcher that the demographic differences of participant will result to irrelevant variables that can affect the analysis of the data. However, this was immediately addressed.             There will be a total of 150 participants will be randomly asked to complete the survey. They will be chosen regardless of demographic factors. This means that generalization can be avoided since the demographics of the participants are varied. This suggests that most of the groups and sub-groups of the population will be represented in the research. The survey forms can be distributed on the street. The researcher can ask strangers to complete the survey forms. This means that the structure of the survey must be easy to understand and answer as to not bother the participants so much.             Even though, the sampling method to be used is random, it is important to note that the participants of the researcher must be exposed to Asian commercials. As such, it is important that the researcher be able to find a population composed mainly of people who have seen or are familiar with Asian commercial. It does not necessarily mean that the participant must be Asian in ethnicity. This way the randomness of the sampling method will still be retained.   Research Instruments   Content analysis will be one of the research strategies to be used. Different television commercials that have women as their leading models will be content analyzed. Ten themes will be acquired from the commercials and the frequency of the themes will be statistically evaluated using the frequency analysis. The themes for the content analysis will be sexist word such as girl, and other physically related words such as: sexy, slim, slender, beautiful, ad flawless. Success words such as achiever, bread-winner, champion, intelligent, and bright will also be analyzed. All synonyms of those words will also be considered for analysis. The frequency analysis will be used in the content analysis to determine if the frequency of the ten themes observed have an impact on the consideration of the female image in advertisements. For example, the frequency analysis will be able to determine if the use of women in advertisements is purely for aesthetic purposes or if it has underlying contexts in relation to the sales of product or services being endorsed. In order to do this, specific questions must be included in the survey to determine how viewers are affected by the frequency of the themes observed.             On the other hand, surveys will also be used. Surveys are the most common form of research method for collection of primary data (Commonwealth of Learning, 2000). One of its purpose is to describe, e.g., to count the frequency of some event or to assess the distribution of some variables such as proportion of the population of different age groups, sex, religion, castes and languages, knowledge, attitude and adoption of practices about particular issues, and other information of similar nature about the population (Commonwealth of Learning, 2000). For this study, surveys will be used on male and female samples to acquire their views on female models in TV advertisement. This will determine the view of the audience and determine if stereotypes or adoration exists among audiences of both sexes. The questionnaire that will be used for the survey will be structured. Attitude statements will be constructed and will be measured with a five-point Likert Scale. The questionnaires will be pre-tested to 5 respondents and will be analyzed through frequency analysis.             Finally, data will be analyzed with the use of frequency analysis and chi-square. For the chi-square test, expected frequencies on both male and females will be put on each attitude statements on the questionnaire. This will then be computed using the chi-square and compare if the expected frequency and computed frequency has a goodness of fit.                                 References:   Barcan, R. (2004). Nudity: A Cultural Anatomy. Berg, New York.   Berenson, B. (1953). The Italian Painters of the Renaissance. Phaidon Publishers, New York.   Commonwealth of Learning. (2000). Manual for Educational Media          Researchers: Knowing your Audience. Vancouver, Canada: Commonwealth Educational Media Centre for Asia (CEMCA).   Courtney, A.E. and Wernick Lockeretz, S. (1971), “A woman’s place: an analysis of the roles portrayed by women in magazine advertisements”, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 8; pp. 92-5.   Creswell, J.W. (1994). Research design. Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage.   Evans, J.G. (1949). English Art, 1307-1461. Clarendon Press. Oxford, England.   Ford, J.B., Vooli, P.K., Honeycutt, E.D., and Casey, S.L., (1998). Gender role portrayals in Japanese advertising: A magazine content analysis. Journal of Advertising, Vol. 27 (Spring); pp.113-124.   George, C., Heartly, A. and Paris, J. (2001). The representation of female athletes in textual and visual media. Corporate Communications: An International Journal, Vol. 6, No. 2; pp. 94-101   Hofstede, G.H. (1980), Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-related Values, Sage Publications, London   Kolbe, R.H., and Albanese, P.J., (1996). Man to man: A content analysis of sole male images in male-audience magazines. Journal of Advertising Vol.25, No.1; pp.1-20.   Lake, C. and Maillard, R. (1956). A Dictionary of Modern Painting. Tudor Publishing. New York.   Lambiase, J., Reichert, T., Morgan, S., Carstarphen, M., Zavoina, S., (1999). Cheesecake and beefcake: No matter how you slice it, sexual explicitness in advertising continues to increase. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, Vol.76 (Spring); pp.7-20.   Martin, M.C., and Gentry, J.W., (1997). Stuck in the model trap: The effects of beautiful models in ads on female pre-adolescents and adolescents. The Journal of Advertising, Vol.26; p.19-33.   Michelle, P.C.N. and Taylor, W. (1990). Polarizing Trends in Female Role Portrayal in UK Advertising. European Journal of Marketing, Vol.24, No.5; pp.41-49.   Napoli, J., Murgolo-Poore, M. and Boudville, I. (2003). Female Gender Images in Adolescent Magazine Advertising. Australasian Marketing Journal Vol.11, No.1; pp.60-69.   Ross, L. (1996). Medieval Art: A Topical Dictionary. Greenwood Press, Westport, CT.   Saunders, M., Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. (2003). Research Methods for Business         Students, 3rd Ed. London: Prentice Hall Financial Times   Siu, W. and Kai-Ming, A. (1997). Women in advertising: a comparison of television advertisements in China and Singapore. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, Vol.15, No.5; pp. 235-243   Whitelock, J. and Jackson, D. (1997). Women in TV advertising: a comparison between the UK and France. European Business Review, Vol.97, No.6; pp. 294–305   Wiles, J., Wiles, C.R. and Tjernlund, A. (1995). A comparison of gender role portrayals in magazine advertising: The Netherlands, Sweden and the USA. European Journal of Marketing. Vol.29, No.11; pp. 35-49   Wang, F., Faber, R.J. and Fung, F. (2003). Perceived Impact of Thin Female Models in Advertising: A Cross-Cultural Examination of Third Person Perception and its Impact on Behaviors. Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, Vol.15, No.1; pp. 51-73.   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

RESEARCH QUESTION/HYPOTHESIS

INTRODUCTION This paper proposes to conduct a dissertation that will explore the factors that determine the use of the fem...

Structures and Areas

Describe different structures and areas within the brain.  Discuss in detail the thalamus, hypothalamus, endocrine and limbic systems.   Be sure to discuss the location in the brain, their functions, disorders/pathology related to damage to these structures, and other important information in regards to these structures.  Finally, describe the functions of the right and left hemispheres within the brain. Are specific functions specialized in one area of the brain?  Provide evidence to support your viewpoint.     Write a 2-3 page paper addressing the items above. Be sure the paper is formatted following APA guidelines and include your references.     As with all assignments in which you are referring to someone else’s writing, cite any sources used and format them according to the requirements of the APA style guide. This formatting includes, but is not limited to, the following guidelines:   Margins – set to one inch Font – 12 pt. Times New Roman, no bold, or underline   Title – center above the paper, 12 pt. font (Level A Heading), no bold, underline, or italics Pagination – every page; consists of a header containing a short title for the paper and page number placed in the upper right corner of the page Line Spacing – double space all work including the References Page. Point-of-View – first person may be used for this paper In-text citations – must conform to APA requirements References list – must conform to APA requirements     Goals for this assignment   1.  Experience the relationship between how the brain works and how we experience and make sense of our world.   2.  Increase your awareness of the function of specific areas of the brain and how it relates to how we think, feel, and make sense of the world.   3.  Explore disorders related to damage or malfunctioning of the specific systems and areas of the brain.    4.  Demonstrate an understanding how the specific areas of the brain impact the way we think, feel, behave and perceive.   5.  You must cover all areas listed.   Background   Unit two covers sensation and perception. The learning event topic for your paper draws material from these chapters and other sources. Your individual assignment will explore the inner working of the brain.   In the past 100 years our understanding of the brain has increased tremendously. The brain is a fragile spongy organ suspended in fluid that serves to keep it cool and absorb impact.  Each of us think, perceive, experience, and feel, almost exclusively in our brain. It is the center of consciousness, thought, emotion, and perception. What is real or imaginary in our lives takes place in our brain.   As our understanding grows we have learned about the discrete function of specific areas as well as how multiple areas work together to help us form ideas, recognize words and associate them with people places, and events.  Contrary to the popular image of the brain as a storehouse of images, our brain is a store house of experience that is used to make sense of the world, so we can act and create new experiences. In this unit we will explore the relationship between the biological and psychology, though exploring the brain.   Directions/Grading criteria   1.    Your assignment is to write a 2-3 page APA paper. APA formatting is required. Please use the APA template in your drop box.   2.     The basic format for APA papers is as follows:   a.             APA cover page,   b.             Abstract (is optional),   c.              Introduction that describes the purpose of the assignment and introduces the main points.   d.             Body of the paper has the information and details on the main points, with in text citations.    e.             A summary that summarizes the main points and draws a conclusion if warranted.   f.               Finally an APA reference page including all sources cited.   3.             Avoid vague and general statements. Do not give your opinion unless asked. Research papers only cover the assigned topic.   4.     In your introduction give a clear statement that describes the assignment.     5.     Describe each area and system of the brain listed starting with the right and left hemispheres.    6.     Describe disorders related to damage or dysfunction of these areas and systems.      7.     You must answer the final question, by describing the specific functions of each specialized area of the brain.   8.     You must use research to support your statements. With a minimum of three references.   9.     You must cite your sources in APA format using in text citations.   10.   Do not copy the directions in your paper to take up more space.   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Structures and Areas

Describe different structures and areas within the brain. Discuss in detail the thalamus, hypothalamus, endocrine and limbic sy...

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