Research Articles Base: Poverty Case Studies

DEFINED POVERTY

Poverty Defined               Poverty is understood in many senses. The main understandings of the term is that poverty in this sense may be understood as the deprivation of essential goods and services.             Poverty is an economic condition of lacking both money and basic necessities needed to successfully live such as food, water, education, and shelter.             In the sense of social need, it includes social exclusion, dependency, and the ability to participate in society. This would include education and information. Social exclusion is usually distinguished from poverty, as it encompasses political and moral issues, and is not restrained to the sphere of economics.  It is also describes as a lack of sufficient income and wealth. The meaning of “sufficient” varies widely across the different political and economic parts of the world ( 2006).             Poverty is hunger. Poverty is lack of shelter. Poverty is being sick and not being able to see a doctor. Poverty is not having access to school and not knowing how to read. Poverty is not having a job, is fear for the future, living one day at a time. Poverty is losing a child to illness brought about by unclean water. Poverty is powerlessness, lack of representation and freedom.             Although the most severe poverty is in the developing world, there is evidence of poverty in every region. In developed countries, this condition results in wandering homeless people and poor suburbs and ghettos. Poverty may be seen as the collective condition of poor people, or of poor groups, and in this sense entire nation-states are sometimes regarded as poor. To avoid stigma these nations are usually called developing nations.             Poverty can also be conceived as absolute or relative, as lack of income or failure to attain capabilities. It can be chronic or temporary, is sometimes closely associated with inequity, and is often correlated with vulnerabilities and social exclusion Poverty Measured             There are two basic types of distinction that help differentiate families of poverty indicators: means/ends and quantitative/qualitative. ENDS AND MEANS             The distinction between “means” and “ends” is that the former refers to indicators of inputs intended to achieve an end result, while the latter measures the ultimate out-comes. The fact that certain “means” indicators correspond to measurable “ends” should not be misconstrued to imply that the former are exclusively responsible for latter outcomes.             An advantage of using “means” indicators is that there are many to choose from, whereas the main drawback is that one is necessarily using a proxy, or set of proxies, with varying degrees of correlation to one’s definition of poverty. Although “ends” indicators correlate more closely with the phenomena being measured, they tend to change relatively slowly over time and may not be adequate for purposes of poverty monitoring in the short and medium term. Some may also be very expensive to collect.   QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE             Quantitative and qualitative indicators are sometimes confused with objective and subjective perspectives of poverty. In fact, an objective concept of poverty could be measured with both quantitative and qualitative indicators, and the same applies to subjective approaches.             Quantitative data can be aggregated whereas qualitative information usually cannot. On the other hand, qualitative information may provide a subtler picture of reality than can quantitative data. The income and basic needs concepts of poverty are characterized predominantly by quantitative indicators. The human capability poverty approach utilizes both types of indicators, but may incorporate more qualitative indicators than the income and basic needs approaches. Qualitative indicators dominate the participatory and empowerment approaches to poverty reduction.              The two sets of indicators described above intersect when it comes to measuring poverty. A broad approach to monitoring poverty would draw on all possible sets (means and ends, quantitative and qualitative).   INCOME             A common method used to measure poverty is based on incomes or consumption levels. Poverty measurement has been dominated by the so-called income approach. This approach to poverty measurement assumes that individuals and households are poor if their income or consumption falls below a certain threshold, usually defined as a minimum, socially acceptable level of well being by a population group. A person is considered poor if his or her consumption or income level falls below some minimum level necessary to meet basic needs. This minimum level is usually called the “poverty line”             In the absence of household survey data, income poverty is sometimes measured in per capita GNP terms. But this latter indicator is a very crude measure and can often be misleading, thus, per capital personal income is a preferable aggregate income indicator.   BASIC NEEDS             The basic needs concept of poverty takes the income approach one step further. This approach attempts to address some of the limitations of the income indicator family by distinguishing between private income, publicly provided services and different forms of nonmonetary “income.” The basic needs approach to poverty measurement includes access to such necessities as food, shelter, schooling, health services, potable water and sanitation facilities, employment opportunities, and even touches on opportunities for community participation. Basic needs indicators are often classified in the “means” category. However, since they are one step closer to outcomes than income measures, they are sometimes placed in a category of their own—“indirect ends.”               Basic needs indicators add a wide range of dimensions to income measures. For example, a rise in housing or essential transport costs would be counted as a decline in well being using basic needs indicators, while per capita GNP would record this as an increase.   HUMAN CAPABILITY             The human capability approach to poverty measurement attempts to measure poverty in terms of outcomes or “ends.” This approach defines the phenomena as the absence of basic human capabilities to function at a minimally acceptable level within a society. An emphasis is placed on people’s abilities and opportunities to enjoy long, healthy lives, to be literate and to participate freely in their society.               Most capability poverty indicators are straightforward: life expectancy, literacy rates, malnutrition, etc. The biggest advantage of capability indicators, as a whole, is that they measure well being in terms of final outcomes rather than as proxies for those outcomes. In addition, many of them are considered mainstream in terms of national statistics, so data is often available.             The main disadvantages are similar to those of the basic needs group. There are no perfect aggregates for this family of indicators and they are expressed in terms with varying degrees of familiarity. In addition, some capability indicators are group measures and cannot be used to gauge household or individual well being.  Furthermore, some of the capability indicators are stock variables, which change slowly over time, thus limiting their usefulness for short- and medium-term poverty monitoring.   References: Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

DEFINED POVERTY

Poverty Defined Poverty is understood in many senses. The main understandings of the term is that poverty in this sense...

POVERTY IN THE AFRICAN AMERICAN COMMUNITY

Poverty in the African American Community               Poverty is a frequently used and implicit idea.  However, the definition of this idea is highly challenged.  Perhaps, one of the greatest problems that every nation is facing today is poverty. The problems of poverty are tremendously spreading not only to those nations who lacks power but also to those nations who is powerful like the United States. Specifically this essay will view the factors that cause poverty among African Americans and the solution that might be helpful to reduce or even erased poverty.  Furthermore the main aim of this essay is to know the best way to deal poverty encountered by the African American community. In history, from 1450 -1750, the North American continent experienced enormous changes. The European explorers ventured to what they called then as the “New World” in search of vast amounts of natural wealth. Corollary to these exploratory activities, these European explorers also traveled to Africa and began a trans-Atlantic slave trade. Millions of Africans were brought to the Americas and traded there as slaves. This mass movement of people led to a new social and economic system; with the color of the skin as a determining factor whether one would live as a slave or as a free citizen.          By 1750, both the free and enslaved black people showed an intense attachment to America. After 1750, many African-Americans already found their freedom. In 1830, Philadelphia held the first meeting of the American Society of Free Persons of Color (later became the National Negro Convention).[1] This organization for the black people was created to establish a black community and seek true freedom.[2] Although the black communities in America or the so-called African Americans are now free, there are still problems in discrimination of black people resulting to poverty. The discrimination of jobs, education and health tend to be the factors of their agony. It is in fact that poverty has affected many lives of individuals.  Records show that many people are suffering because of the problem in poverty. But who is really the most affected in poverty. The effect of poverty is very obvious among children of this generation. In poverty, children suffer especially in terms of education. Because of poverty most of the parents cannot afford to give their children proper education.  states that “until the children are educated for life they live a margin of society for life and in the long run will be losers.”[3] Also, due to poverty, children do not enjoy life as they must enjoy it.  Most of the children from poor families have to work earlier so that they can help their parents.  Although health is itself an outcome, it can also be viewed as a pathway by which poverty influences other child outcomes, such as cognitive ability and school achievement. Poor children experience increased rates of low birth weight and elevated blood lead levels when compared with nonpoor children. These conditions have, in turn, been associated with reduced IQ and other measures of cognitive functioning in young children and, in the case of low birth weight, with increased rates of learning disabilities, grade retention, and school dropout in older children and youths.             Wherever and whenever a glimmering of the new view of poverty is found, there is found also increased interest in its causes. Poverty on a world scale has many historical causes: colonialism, slavery, war and conquest. There is an important difference between those causes and what is called factors that maintain conditions of poverty. It is well known that many nations of in the world, faced by devastating wars, such as World Wars I and II, were reduced to bare poverty, where people were reduced to living on handouts and charity, barely surviving. Through the years they had brought themselves up in terms of real domestic income, to become thriving and influential modern nations of prosperous people. On the other hand, the factors of poverty (as a social problem) are ignorance, disease, apathy, dishonesty and dependency. These factors are to be seen simply as conditions. No moral judgment is intended. They are not good or bad, they just are. If it is the decision of a group of people, as in a society or in a community, to reduce and remove poverty, they will have to (without value judgment) observe and identify these factors, and take action to remove them as the way to eradicate poverty.[4] These factors, in turn, contribute to secondary factors such as lack of markets, poor infrastructure, poor leadership, bad governance, under-employment, lack of skills, absenteeism, lack of capital, and others. Each of these are social problems, each of them are caused by one or more of the big five, and each of them contribute to the perpetuation of poverty, and their eradication is necessary for the removal of poverty.             Although, poverty is fast emerging and the causes continuously affect the poverty situation of African American community, there is still hope to conquer and stop this spread out.  There two optimal solutions that can be imposed in order to get rid of poverty.  First, the government of the United States of America should give priority on providing jobs among their sovereignty. The most that can be expected is that these services would put people in a proper starting position to take part in the economy. To actually achieve such participation requires jobs and possibilities for self-employment. One way to create jobs is a sustainable development program.  states that “residents can work their way out of poverty through the establishment of job training programs.”[5] Since United States of America is one of the most powerful countries, public investment in social and economic infrastructure and in sustainable energy use would create large numbers of jobs for which relatively little schooling is needed. Furthermore, it is believed that what the impoverished in America really need is not money, but a way to make money for the nation itself. In line with this some recommendations are imposed. One is that welfare for poor people must be supplied only under the condition that the individual receiving the benefits be enrolled and involved in a state-funded job placement program that will aid the individual in finding a job or educate the individual in a trade skill that is in demand in that area and then help them find a job. Since the goal is to make the individual productive in order to earn their benefits, it would not be counter-productive to allow for those still unable to find a job through this process to continue to receive benefits while enrolled in volunteer programs for charities and other non-profit organizations.             In conclusion poverty must be given priority not only in the African American community but also in all over the world. This growth of poverty level is largely due to misunderstanding poverty. Measures controlling poverty should be linked to the suitability of the country, as reasons of poverty changes due to social conditions of the country. Many problems in social structure when accumulated, poverty is borne. That may be unemployment, over population, education, government performance.  Poverty then needs to be controlled in two ways, that is, through job creation which requires proper training for individuals and education or literacy.  And since the United States of America is a powerful nation, the best way to deal with poverty is to educate people. Because educated people could be a great asset for a nation and literate individuals might help the government to alleviate the growth of poverty in their nation.             Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

POVERTY IN THE AFRICAN AMERICAN COMMUNITY

Poverty in the African American Community Poverty is a frequently used and implicit idea. However, the definition of this...

POVERTY IN THE AFRICAN AMERICAN COMMUNITY

POVERTY IN THE AFRICAN AMERICAN COMMUNITY

Poverty in the African American Community Poverty is a frequently used and implicit idea. However, the definition of this...

Discuss a range of explanations for poverty and the implications of being in poverty, for health and well being

Poverty and its implications on health and well-being Poverty is one of the issues in this world that demands immediate attention. Poverty is very evident in less developed nations particularly in Asia and Africa. According to  (1998) poverty is the state wherein an individual or a community is underprivileged and do not have the necessary requirements for a minimum approved standard of life. United Kingdom is considered one of the developed nations in this world. The nation has a stabilised economy and the government are able to provide the basic necessities for its people. But despite of that fact, poverty exists in the United Kingdom. However, the scope and extent of poverty in the UK is different from less developed nations. In the United Kingdom, individuals or families that live in a household income that is below 60 per cent are considered impoverished. According to  (2007) 1 in 4 people living in the United Kingdom is in poverty. Moreover, Oxfam discussed that on a recent survey the forms of poverty in which the people in the United Kingdom is currently experiencing are; -approximately 6.5 million adults in the United Kingdom do not have the appropriate clothing because of the lack of money. -more than 10.5 million individuals are financially insecure in which these people cannot afford to save money, obtain insurance for their house, or even spend on some things. -approximately 9.5 million people in the United Kingdom cannot afford the proper housing wherein it has the basic necessities such as heating. - (2000) found out that 18 per cent of children in the United Kingdom does not have two or more items that most of the population says are basic necessities like clothing and toys. -The Department of Work and Pensions identified that one in five non-working families are unable to have the financial means to buy the basic food items in the year 2000.             Poverty affects all people regardless of race, religious and cultural background, however the most affected will be the children. According to  (1995) children that came from impoverished households are most likely to die as a child or a baby and have a low expectancy in life. In addition these children have the biggest probability of acquiring bad health, unemployment and lower chances of obtaining a good education. Poverty is indeed a huge and serious problem that governments and people from all walks of life must address immediately. According to  (2007) there are two types of poverty and these are the Individual and Aggregate Poverty. Individual Poverty- poverty is defined through individual conditions and features of poor people such as the amount of education obtained, health, work orientation and discrimination. Aggregate Poverty- it is divided into two forms of poverty and these are the case and the generic.             Case Poverty- according to case poverty theory, aggregate poverty is the summation of individual poverty.             Generic Poverty- in this type of aggregate poverty, the general and economic problems of the nation is considered the main cause of poverty like inadequate employment opportunities, problems in the macro economy and macro policies of the nation and low income of the country.  According to  (2007) in the United Kingdom poverty is defined as absolute poverty, relative poverty and social exclusion. Absolute poverty is the absence of enough resources in order to keep the soul and body together. Relative poverty, on the other hand, is concerned with the state of inexistence of the necessities necessary to partake fully in the standard way of living. And social exclusion is the occurrence of interlinked problems such as low incomes, unemployment, bad health and poor housing. In order to address the roots of the problem, the causes of poverty must first be identified. The following are the causes of poverty in the United Kingdom: Disability- according to  (2007) 30% of disabled working adults live in poverty, and the poverty rate for disabled adults in the workforce is increasing over the past years. According to the  (2007) poverty is both the cause and consequence of disability because majority of individuals that have disabilities affect their chances of entering school, going to the workforce and participating in the daily activities of normal people. According to the  (2007) poverty and disability has a two way relationship particularly among the children in the United Kingdom. The report of the institute predicts that by the year 2020 majority of people in the UK aged 50 and above will have long-term health problems or will be disabled. The report also stated that poverty during childhood could have an impact in the chances of the child; in addition, more homes that have a disabled family member are in poverty compare to households that do not have a disabled family member. In the United Kingdom 29 per cent of homes that have one or more disabled family member lived in poverty compare to 21 per cent of homes that do not have disabled family member. Disabilities could come in various forms it could be physical or mental. And disabilities have huge implications on the health and well-being of a person.  Individuals with disabilities have the probability of using mental health services according to the  (2004) because of the higher rates of unemployment and poverty. Compare to normal individuals people with disabilities are usually overlooked by the legislators and a number of them have reported difficulty in obtaining health services due to their impairment. The government of the United Kingdom created the Disability Discrimination Act in order to address the needs of disabled citizens. However, according to  (2004) there are still a number of disabled individuals that reported having a hard time getting the services because the staff does not recognize the need of the service in association with physical impairment, some workers still have a negative attitude towards disability, and the hospitals lack the appropriate personnel, equipment, and facilities. In order to address the issues regarding problems on health and disabled individuals  (2004) determined various interventions in order to support individuals that have mental and physical impairments and these are: -the mental health services in UK hospitals must recognise that there are some users that have physical disabilities that need their services, and access to the services and adherence to the Disability Discrimination Act must be checked across all hospitals. -emphasis must be given to answers the needs of individuals that have physical impairments. -treatments must be made accessible to individuals with disabilities. -The procedures of drug prescription and medication must be reviewed in order to be aware in the effects on patients with physical disabilities. Unemployment-  (2004) discussed that relative poverty in the United Kingdom have increased since 1979 due to the increasing rate of unemployment and increasing dispersion of earnings and benefits indexed to prices of commodities not on wages. The fundamental economic force has changes the demand against the unskilled workers which have caused low-skilled labour market to weaken and later on unemployment among low-skilled workers.  In addition, in the study of , , and  (1995) a number of studies have pointed out that there is a positive association between unemployment rates and mortality rates. Studies have determined that there are higher rates of death because of cardiovascular diseases and suicide on unemployed individuals. Moreover, unemployed individuals are most likely to take medications, be admitted to hospitals and visit physicians. And according to  and  (1998) the association of unemployment and health is very complicates and the results differ from population groups, the evidence is very consistent that unemployment is related to negative outcomes on health. Longitudinal studies have revealed that unemployment has a direct effect on the health of an individual. Poor parents- , , and  (1999) pointed out that over the last 30 years child poverty have risen in Great Britain, the employment position of the parents of the children are seen as huge factors in poverty with over half of the poor children between the years 1995-1996 live in homes wherein no adults work. Moreover, children who have poor parents attain less education, and poverty is passed from one generation to another wherein children that have unemployed parents have the probability of being unemployed in the near future. According to  (2003) poverty and the culture surrounding it has a negative impact on the development and health of children. Wood discussed that there are multiple risk factors that come together in impoverished families which increases the risk of children acquiring chronic health problems, failure in school, teen pregnancy and many more.             ,  and  (2006) discussed health inequalities in the United Kingdom.  The authors discussed that importance of health in discussing poverty and social exclusions lies in the scope wherein the disadvantaged individuals obtain and suffer worse health conditions than others. The evidence regarding the association of poverty to health inequalities is extensive. Otherwise stated, the risk of getting and suffering in a specific health problem is bigger to individuals that came from low income households than others.             In addition, in the study of  and  (1996) wherein the poverty rate of United Kingdom were compared to nineteen countries the study have revealed that the overall pre-transfer poverty rate of the United Kingdom is the fifth highest among 20 countries and is comparatively high among single parents and families with children. Social security benefits and direct taxes have leaved United Kingdom with the third highest poverty rate. In the United Kingdom, single parents, elderly and households with children have relatively high incidence of poverty. The authors concluded that direct taxes and social security benefits did not help reduce poverty and inequality in the United Kingdom but instead those two have contributed to the increase in inequality, moreover, the governments social and fiscal policies have failed to protect the poor people against international competition and market forces.             Even though, inequalities in health are seen everywhere in the United Kingdom, it differs a lot in terms of size and scope. The smallest inequality is approximately third and a half higher while the greatest inequality has a ratio of three is to one like in the case pf young adult suicides.             The extensive effect of poverty on health is very apparent regardless on the way poverty is measured. According to  (2007) researchers have identified credible pathways of poverty which include; <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Chronic loss and limited access to basic necessities such as food, shelter and education. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Exposure to toxic chemicals within the environment. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Physical threats to health. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Jobs that is not safe and demanding. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Chronic psychological stress. </li> </ul> In addition, in giving emphasis on the profound effects of poverty on health, it is important not to overlook other aspects such as racial discrimination. Studies have shown that racism has impacts on depression and other illnesses. Another is the high degree of income inequality could contribute to the poor health of individuals living in poverty.             The individuals that are usually affected by poverty are the children and the adolescents. According to  (2007) a study from the United Nations have identified that children in the United Kingdom suffer greatly from poverty, worse relationship with parents, and are more exposed to drug and alcohol use, and unsafe sex compare to developed nations in the world.  (2003) identified the consequences on the health of children and youth that are living in poverty and these are: Oral Health- a number of studies has revealed that oral health could be a contributory factor to chronic diseases such as heart disease. The dental health of a child reflects the oral health of the mother and it is therefore recommended that oral care must be treated within the context of family. In order to help curb the problems in oral health among children and adults in low income families, it must be accessible to them through the government. Unhealthy gums and teeth are associated with poor concentration, low self esteem, and behavioural problems in school among children and adolescents and fewer employment opportunities for adults. Individuals that are in poverty usually do not have access to oral health care which could lead to poor performance in work and school, in order to address this problem the government must include oral health in the basic health services given to the public. Physical Health- poverty has a negative effect on the short-term and long-term chances of children. Most children that live in poverty are born prematurely which could lead to serious health problems in the future or even death. There is an association between poverty and low birth weight and most of the mothers came from low income families and have limited access to health services such as prenatal check-ups. Moreover, children that are in poverty are most likely exposed to harmful environments. Impoverished children have higher risks of vision, hearing and speech impairment as well as delay in the cognitive development. In addition, abuse and physical injuries are more prevalent in individuals that are in poverty which has a negative impact on the personal health of the children. Emotional and Mental Health- emotional health is closely associated with the physical, spiritual and mental well being of an individual. The consequences of poverty on the health of children are numerous and cannot be categorised in one group. Factors such as inadequate housing, unemployment, and decreased access to basic services such as healthcare and education overlap with one another and have a negative impact on an individual. Individuals, particularly children and young people that live in low income households have the biggest probability of having low self-esteem and families living in poverty will be more prone to depression and frustrations. And because of inadequate access of educational and health services of children and youth living in poverty they are mostly at risk of experiencing self-doubt, low self-esteem, frustration, anger, hopelessness, depression and even suicide. Consequences on Short and Long Term Health- the short and long-term health effects on individuals specifically children living in poverty is very overwhelming. The government must develop preventive and holistic interventions to this sector of the society in order to curb the problems related to poverty. Poverty is related to a number of problems and issues in the society such as food insecurity, poor housing, inaccessible health services, reduced access to education and exposure to stress. All of these could greatly affect the development and behaviour of children and young people. Children and youth that grew up in impoverished households are most likely be unemployed in the near future and will be caught in the cycle of poverty.             In order to reduce poverty in the United Kingdom an extensive approach and intervention must be made and with the help of policies and legislation by the government. Affordable housing for households in low incomes must be provided; and the families must have access to medical services such as dental and health services.             Poverty is a social, economic and political problem that must be addressed by the government immediately. Providing better access to health and education must be made since lack of education and poor health conditions are the reasons why there are individuals living in poverty.   References:     Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Discuss a range of explanations for poverty and the implications of being in poverty, for health and well being

Poverty and its implications on health and well-being Poverty is one of the issues in this world that demands immediate attention. Pover...

The Bond between Poverty and Social Exclusion

The Bond between Poverty and Social Exclusion (With Special Emphasis on Education and Children) Understanding Poverty and Social Exclusion Poverty is a difficult question from both a methodological and a theoretical point of view. Furthermore, it is a very ambiguous political issue. Many difficulties derive from the irreducible distance between the abstract concept and the findings from research. The concept is based on the idea that, for various reasons and for variable periods of time, a part of the population lacks access to sufficient resources to enable it to survive at a historically or geographically determined minimum standard of life and that this leads to serious consequences in terms of behavior and social relations. In everyday use, poverty in rich countries is often seen as inability to attain a decent or adequate living standard. What is considered adequate, what are generally perceived as needs, will change over time and differ across societies: poverty is in that sense relative. This is not a new definition, since poverty has always been defined in relation to the standards with which people in a particular time and place are familiar. This was put with admirable clarity by, in a much-quoted passage, when he wrote that ‘necessaries’ included ‘not only the commodities which are indispensably necessary for the support of life, but what ever the custom of the country renders it indecent for creditable people, even the lowest orders, to be without’. The examples he gives are leather shoes and linen shirts: neither essential for survival, but in late eighteenth-century England ‘the poorest creditable person would be ashamed to appear in public without them’. What are seen as needs are thus inevitably socially determined. As  (1983) emphasizes, it is in the notion of shame that the core of the concept of poverty is to be found: the absence of resources puts people in a situation where they cannot live with dignity in their society. The most influential attempt to spell out a definition of poverty that has general applicability is that of : Individuals, families and groups in the population can be said to be in poverty when they lack the resources to obtain the type of diet, participate in the activities and have the living conditions and amenities which are customary, or at least widely encouraged, or approved, in the societies to which they belong. Their resources are so seriously below those commanded by the average individual or family that they are, in effect, excluded from ordinary living patterns, customs and activities. (1979)  aimed at analyzing styles of living and at developing indicators of objective deprivation, that is where households lack an amenity or do not participate in an activity which a majority of the population have or participated in. Twelve sub-categories or dimensions of deprivation were distinguished, namely dietary, clothing, fuel and light, household facilities, housing conditions, work conditions, health, education, environment, family activities, recreational, and social relations. Information on a total of sixty items across these domains was gathered for households in his survey (1969). Poverty is now widely conceptualized in terms of  exclusion from the life of society because of a lack of resources, and being ‘excluded’ in this context is generally taken to mean experiencing various forms of what that society regards as serious deprivation, both material and social. In relying on income to make statements about poverty defined in this way, it is necessary to assume that those falling below the specified income poverty line are not able to participate fully in the life of the community. This cannot be simply taken for granted, however: it requires validation. Indeed, stringent critique of the use of income poverty lines is based precisely on the argument that low income is quite unreliable as an indicator of poverty, because it often fails to distinguish households experiencing deprivation and exclusion. A good starting-point for the definition of poverty as social exclusion arises from lack of resources, and to see how information on deprivation indicators and income can be used to incorporate both exclusion and lack of resources directly into the poverty measure. Ringen’s critique of reliance on income in measuring poverty is based on the argument that income is not a satisfactory measure of poverty because many of that not on low income suffer deprivation in consumption, and far from all the members of low income groups suffer such deprivation. How then are the poor to be distinguished from the non-poor? It is necessary to be clear at the outset that this involves two distinct elements: one is deciding on the indicator or yardstick on which to focus in measuring poverty, and the other is deriving a poverty standard applying to that yardstick. A brief reference to the literature on poverty measurement in developing countries helps in developing this point. The most common approach to measuring poverty in those countries involves specifying what are regarded as ‘minimally adequate’ (or some such formulation) levels of consumption of items such as food, clothing, and shelter, and using information on prevailing prices to arrive at the minimum expenditure level that allows this basket of goods to be obtained (perhaps with some provision for waste or inefficient expenditure). Most often, household incomes are then compared with this minimum to judge whether the members of the house- hold are in poverty. Alternatively, it is also quite common for household expenditure to be used for that purpose: households with expenditure rather than income below the minimum are considered poor. However, the ‘basic needs’ literature has focused instead on measurement of the extent to which minimal levels or standards are actually being attained by a household in terms of food, clothing, shelter, health care, and so on. This multi- dimensional approach allows for the possibility that someone may be ‘clothing-poor’ but not ‘food-poor’, and requires direct observation of the consumption patterns and living conditions of individuals/households. National aggregates for non-monetary social indicators’ such as life expectancy, infant and child mortality rates, literacy rates, educational participation, and housing conditions have long been used by international organizations and academic studies to complement per capita GDP in comparing welfare levels across countries. Most recently, dissatisfaction with per capita GDP as a measure of a country’s welfare has led the United Nations Development Programme to develop its Human Development Index, a composite of GDP per capita, life expectancy, and literacy levels. In developed countries there has also been a long tradition of employing indicators such as unemployment rates and housing conditions in comparing welfare or deprivation levels across regions or areas within cities. Income alone is not a good indicator of poverty. But since income is a more tangible data for the economist to analyze how much the household or the individual can purchase and fill his “basket” in the market, income is widely used as an indicator of poverty. Poverty is much more complex than simply income deprivation. Poverty entails lack of empowerment, lack of knowledge and lack of opportunity as well as lack of income and capital. Poverty and social exclusion whoever are interconnected in many ways not only in economic point of view, but as well as in social services and political rights. Poverty comes in many varieties, as do explanations as to its causes and effects on the people who are experiencing it. Poverty in the third world for example, can be a matter of life and death, and is experienced in a very different way from poverty in the developed world. One of the most recent developments in this context has been the move from defining poverty in terms of the lack of material resources to the concept of social exclusion, which focuses on the issue of social rights (1999). While some see this as new and better way of understanding the problem of disadvantaged groups, others claim it is simply poverty, in yet another guise. Townsend sees poverty as being attributed to a lack of material resources and the poor are those who are materially disadvantaged. His approach is multidimensional in that deprivation, due to lack of material resources can arise from a number of factors and can have a profound affect in many other aspects of a persons life such as diet, clothing, health, education and family activities. It is only when their difficulties arise from the lack of material resources that they can be categorized as poor. Educational attainment disparity between the poor and the rich is one concrete example how poverty is linked to social exclusion. Education is seen to be the great panacea by which inequality and poverty can be reduced. Attending a college or university in the United States is very expensive. And even when basic education is available, the poorest are unable to avail of it because the direct and opportunity costs attached to it are quite high for them. A year at a prominent four-year university can cost almost ,000, and this does not include the extra costs of housing, transportation, and other living expenses. There are, of course, less expensive options at colleges that also offer an excellent education. Most four-year colleges cost at least ,000 per year, and many more are in the ,000 to ,000 range. For families in the United States, paying for the education of their children has become a major expense. Furthermore, dropping out of school because of poverty virtually guarantees perpetuation of the poverty cycle since the income-earning potential of the child is reduced, not to mention overall productivity, receptivity to change, and capacity to improve quality of life. Lack of education perpetuates poverty, and poverty constrains access to schooling. Eliminating poverty requires providing access to quality education. Low levels of investment by family and society in the education and development of disadvantaged children translate into poorer outcomes when those children grow up-reduced employment and lower wages, higher rates of early and non-marital childbearing, and lower incomes, with all the concomitant risks to family health and well-being ( 2005). Because of the high cost of education, poor families are forced to let go of “higher educational learning” for their children. With cognitive labor rapidly supplanting physical labor, the theme of the times seems to be that if Americans are to successfully compete in the new economic world system then the quality and quantity of their education must be increased. Children coming from poor families that never reached college of course logically cannot compete in the job hunt for cognitive labor. Poverty is thus both a cause and an effect of insufficient access to or completion of quality education. Children of poor families are less likely to enroll in and complete schooling because of the associated costs of attending school even when it is provided “free”. According to the latest  reports, there is a big pay-off between educational attainment and synthetic estimates of work-life earnings.  Average earnings of high school dropouts range from ,900 to , 900 for high school graduates. College graduates earns an average of , 400 while workers with professional degrees like doctors and lawyers earn about $ 99, 300 average per year. From this data alone we can safely say that higher education level is associated with an increase in earning or income. The relationship between education and poverty reduction is thus quite straight and linear as education is empowering; it enables the person to participate in the development process; it inculcates the knowledge and skills needed to improve the income earning potential and in turn the quality of life. Education thus helps to lay the foundation for the following pillars of poverty reduction: Empowerment, human development, social development and good governance. In which because of poverty, education became an exclusion to poor people, thus forgoing the very pillars of poverty reduction. The cycle of poverty continue then. Income, however is the not the sole determinant of being poor. But individual income is a big factor in determining the necessities the individual have to sacrifice, or can acquire depending upon his income. Poverty is not just an issue of income, it represents an avalanche of issues including lack of health insurance, inadequate education and poor nutrition. Poverty puts children at an unfair disadvantage for future opportunities. Children who are poor are more likely to die in infancy, have low birth weight, lack health care, housing and adequate food. They also receive lower scores in math and reading. This is because poverty cannot afford them basic necessities that is needed to ensure them a good future, though a good future is not given, but it can be worked upon given the basic needs. Protecting the well being of our children is a basic obligation which adults must embrace and public policies must promote, failing to do so has personal and social consequences ( 2005). CDF estimates that each year that we allow more than 12 million children to live in poverty will cost our society 0 billion in future economic output as poor children grow up to be less productive and effective workers ( 1997). Poor families are forced to make choices between paying rent and buying food or medicine. One recent report, based on the findings of pediatric health professionals, looked at the cost of food insecurity to young children’s growth, health and development. It concluded that children raised in food insecure households are more likely to suffer poor health, including illnesses severe enough to require hospitalization. The average total cost for a single hospitalization for pediatric illness is , 300. The same amount would purchase almost five years of food stamps for a family receiving the fiscal year 2004 average monthly household benefit of 0 (2005). Poverty is a cycle unless one of the pillars, empowerment, human development and social development, of poverty reduction are meet. What hinders the poor from erecting these pillars are lack of material resources, like money, shelter, clothing, foods etc. Lack of information and education also hinders empowerment, personal and social development. Thus, poverty and social exclusion are linked as one. Social exclusion is just a polite term for poverty.         Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

The Bond between Poverty and Social Exclusion

The Bond between Poverty and Social Exclusion (With Special Emphasis on Education and Children) Understanding Poverty and Social Exclusio...

POVERTY AND WELFARE STATE

INTRODUCTION This essay discusses about sociology and poverty as to how it is measured.  Sociology when defined is a field of social science that involves in the study of people’s lives, groups and societies in a social context.  Moreover, it has been considered to be a study of social aggregations in which humans interact socially and the entities in which human’s moves through.  How is sociology connected with poverty then?  The society that serves as the structure in which poverty co-existed enables sociologist to study the means in which poverty has penetrated in social structure.  Sociologist can help a lot in a way that their field permits the exploration of the certain aspects that needs to be explored so as to contribute and find solutions to curtail the problems of poverty. Poverty on the other hand is defined by the World Bank in the case of extreme poverty as living on less than US$ (PPP) 1 per day, and moderate poverty as less than a day.  Similarly, poverty can also be viewed as those who live in conditions where the resources are scarce that leads to deprivation of these essential resources to the poor people.  The problem of poverty is already severe and devastating to some parts of the world.  To illustrate the seriousness of the problem brought about by poverty, it is said that one third of deaths are caused by poverty-related causes. In fact, around 11 million of children every year experiences death before they reach the age of 5.  Furthermore, 800 million people go to bed with an empty stomach every night.  Sounds alarming, isn’t it?  Statistics continues to show the vast number of poverty instances that is revealed to the world for the people worldwide to have the awareness and the urgency to fight and call out for solutions to curb down poverty.  However, in spite of the campaigns being started by some concerned international organizations, their efforts may seem not to be enough.  Although, they have done very great help to the developing countries by instilling hope to the poor people and make these people feel that someone still cares for them.  There is a need to call out for more people and convinced them to take part in the efforts to help alleviate the immediate need needed by countries that has been affected by poverty.  Sadly, the three richest people in the world control more wealth than all 600 million people living in the world’s poorest countries.    MAIN PART Poverty may seem to be immeasurable because of its increasing numbers and pervasiveness.  Though it seems to be the case, poverty can still be quantifiable in different ways.  Poverty when measured includes the terms absolute poverty, relative poverty, primary poverty and secondary poverty and disaggregating uses by means of a vector measure. These are only few of the measures used to quantify poverty.  Absolute poverty pertains to the sets of standards that remain stable and show consistency over time.  Perhaps, absolute poverty refers to the objective interpretation of poverty since it examined the salient features in the society such as poor people who generate less income, least education and lowest in social status.  The application of absolute poverty can be measured and can be interpreted simply of what is seen as a whole particularly in countries who conspicuously experienced poverty. Second measure is the relative poverty as it refers to the dependency of the social context.  It is relatively measured by comparing 1/3 of the poorest population to 1% of the richest or of the well-off.  Relative poverty  measure that more or less they fall into the context of generalization since it only computes the resources that is acquired by the rich and what is not acquired by the poor.  The resulting measurement may not be readily conceivable as concluded because it is evident that there is a case of extreme inequality in the acquisition of resources and poverty condition cannot be closely examined if the variable is limited.  Wherein, we know that poverty evolves by several factors. Primary and secondary poverty is purported from the research by   (1901), defining primary poverty as the inability to acquire enough income to buy the basic necessities needed in everyday living.  Consequently, secondary poverty refers to instances wherein the incomes are only adequate for the basic needs but not on other things that are not prioritizable like hygiene needs.  However, the use of primary poverty measures the inconsistency of arriving at a poverty line.  The method of assumption of primary poverty is quite unrealistic, because of the fact that poverty line does not include public services, such as in education and health services, being utilized to be free of charge.  Public services are being used to sustain and have access to these free services from the government. The disaggregating approach to measure poverty is a survey conducted to examine the satisfaction level in terms of basic needs. If answers to the satisfaction level results to exhibit inadequate level, it will be accounted as poor.  Basic needs are basically the most essential thing an individual needs to acquire and to provide the body with enough energy.  In Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, the basic need is ranked at the bottom, thereby, it implies that satisfaction from these needs would entail that one can afford to maintain a certain level and can advance in the pyramid to the next need.  Dissatisfaction in the basic needs means one have a hard time being able to keep up in the basic needs that an individual needs everyday.  In agreement with the disaggregating approach, the inability to sustain and meet the basic needs requirement means that you lack sufficient income, ergo; one can be considered poor and is susceptible to poverty.           CONCLUSION               Poverty posits a very big problem to the world.  If not being closely looked into, it’s tremendous impact would be felt globally.  People as much as possible could get themselves involved in the campaigns being launched, to support the world is undoubtedly needed by everyone to do a fair share on their part in gradually eradicating poverty.                     REFERENCES:   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

POVERTY AND WELFARE STATE

INTRODUCTION This essay discusses about sociology and poverty as to how it is measured. Sociology when defined is a field of social sci...

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essay : A Filipino friend of mine went to Germany recently, and bumped into a German acquaintance. The German said, “What are you doing here? It’s so cold here.” While facts could be cited against global warming, it can also be said that to a certain extent, our opinion is generally wrest on how we perceived these facts. A citizen of a temperate country will welcome the summer, while a Filipino, from a tropical Philippines, will always consider it a bane that summers in our country had become hotter. Early in the summer this year 2010, we experienced the high temperature recorded, and the record only topped immediately by the temperature of the days after. News agencies reported that April 6th was the hottest day in the year scorching at 36.1 degree Celsius, only to be topped by the 11th. By the end of the summer, May 19th declared the hottest day of the year in 37.5 degree Celsius. The Philippine weather agency PAG-ASA had declared that this had been the hottest summer in ten years averaging 36 degree Celsius every day. With these facts in mind, if a Filipino is asked if “global warming is preferable to global cooling”, then he certainly would say, “No.” I, a Filipino, at first, would intuitively answer “No, the world is hot as it is.” No matter, the world is getting warmer. Niall Ferguson, a respected historian from the Harvard University, pointed out that food production had benefited from a slightly increased temperature since the 18th century during the Industrial Revolution, to which many had attributed wrongly the start of global warming. The truth is: the world had been increasingly warm since the Ice Age. What is problematic is the cataclysmic effect of human activity to the rate that Earth is warming up. Between global warming and global cooling, which is preferable? I like to factor in food production in my answer. A drop in temperature usually means damage to crops. Locally, Baguio farmers suffers when their crops freezes from lowered temperature. Imagine the Ice Age once again. The land is frozen. Nothing can be cultivated, hence food is scarce. Not only are you cold, you are also hungry. I prefer global warming, if I have to chose, but please, the world is hot as it is. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

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