Research Articles Base: Disaster Management

Disaster Management Research Proposal

A Comparative Study of Economical Impacts and Disaster Management of Tsunami in Indonesia and Sri Lanka – Research Proposal   1.0 Title             The working title of this research is initially drafted as – A Comparative Study of Economical Impacts and Disaster Management of Tsunami in Indonesia and Sri Lanka 2.0 Abstract             This qualitative study will investigate the differences between Indonesia and Sri Lanka with respect to the economical impacts and disaster management of tsunami. In this proposal, how the economy and the lives of the people are affected will be investigated. As well, how the international organisations such as the UN, World Bank and International Red Cross contributed in the fast recovery of both countries will be also addressed. 3.0 Introduction This paper discusses in detail the research proposal on the comparative study of Indonesia and Sri Lanka. In particular, the research will focus on the economical impacts and disaster management of tsunami. In this research proposal, the background, context and theme of the study are presented; the objectives of the study and the research statements are formulated. Here, vital concepts, questions and assumptions are stated. Finally, the scope and limitation of the study, methodology to be used and the significance of the research are discussed. 4.0 Statement of the problem             The profound effects of the Indian Ocean earthquake resulting to tsunami is still widely felt today. Nonetheless, the extent of economical impact of such occurrence to two of the most affected countries is not known. How the economy of Indonesia and Sri Lanka is affected and its trickle down effects of the poorest of people living in the coastal area should be determined. Why the tsunami affects that much number of the people and communities are blamed on the inefficiency and the lacking disaster preparedness of both countries. There is also a vast of worldwide humanitarian responses but it also not known the rationale and for what specific purpose the aids are intended. Finally, the functions and responsibilities of the international organisations should be recognized and how they contribute t the recovery of Indonesia and Sri Lanka.    5.0 Background to the problem             An undersea earthquake which occurred on December 26, 2004 known as the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was perceived to be the primary reason that triggered the series of tsunamis. With the epicenter located at the west cost of Sumatra, Indonesia, the earthquake-elicited tsunamis killed more than 225, 000 people in eleven countries and flooding coastal communities of its 30 meters high waves. Dubbed as the one of the deadliest natural disasters in history, the tsunamis hit a relatively high number of countries with Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India and Thailand were the hardest hit.             Many affected people and communities prompted a widespread humanitarian response especially for those communities that heavily depended on fishing as livelihood. For instance, the Sri Lankan artisanal fishery whereby fish baskets, fishing traps and spears are commonly used; industrial fishery, as the major economic activity, provides employment to about 250, 000 people. But for Sri Lanka and Indonesia, the estimated lost of job is 1 million. For Indonesia, the affected economies are housing, commerce, agriculture and fisheries and transport vehicles and services amounting to .8 billion (ADB, 2006).             As such, the economical impacts of tsunamis are immense including the rapid growth and development of coastal areas, inhabitants, large fleet of ships and major port facilities, fishing industries and aqua cultural industries and canneries. However, for both Indonesia and Sri Lanka, these were obstructed by the risks posed by tsunamis such as flooding, contamination of drinking water, damaged aquatic life and loss of vital community infrastructure and livelihood (Ardalan et al). What had happened in 2004 calls for an effective disaster management which will include prevention and preparedness, hazard mitigation, emergency relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction.   6.0 Project aims and objective             The main purpose of this study is to investigate the economical implications and the disaster management of tsunami in two of the most affected countries, Indonesia and Sri Lanka. In lieu with this, the study will address the following specific objectives §         To determine the extent of the socio-economical impact of the 2004 tsunami to Indonesia and Sri Lanka §         To distinguish the international humanitarian responses intended for Indonesia and Sri Lanka §         To analyse how the 2004 tsunami affect the lives of Indonesian and Sri Lankan and the economy of both countries §         To investigate the disaster management activities after the occurrence of the tsunami    §         To identify the different tools and applications in terms of disaster management by Indonesian and Sri Lankan governments §         To establish the role of international organisations such as World Bank, UN and International Red Cross 6.1 Research objectives             The objectives of the research basically to conduct a comparative study of economical impacts between Indonesia and Sri Lanka; therefore determine disaster management process is more responsive. Based on this, the research will accomplish the following research objectives: §         Provide a comprehensive discussion about the economical impact as well as disaster management of tsunami §         Conduct a comparative study between Indonesia and Sri Lanka as the two hardest hit countries of the 2004 tsunami §         Review related literatures on economical impacts and disaster management of tsunami and how it affects Indonesia and Sri Lanka §         Assessment and evaluation of the economical impacts and disaster management of tsunami based on the experience of Indonesia and Sri Lanka §         Contribute to the research and literature of tsunami and its economical impacts and the disaster management 6.2 Research questions             To carry out the purpose of the study, the following research questions will be addressed. 1)     What are the socio-economical impacts of the tsunami to Indonesia? to Sri Lanka? How do they differ? 2)     What are the international humanitarian responses that both countries received? 3)     What had been the role of international organisations towards the full recovery of Indonesia and Sri Lanka? 4)     Generally, how does the tsunami affect the economy of Indonesia and Sri Lanka? 5)     How does the tsunami affect the lives of Indonesian? of Sri Lankan? 6)     Before and after the tsunami, what are the disaster management activities in Indonesia? in Sri Lanka? 7)     What are the different disaster management tools are in placed for Indonesia? for Sri Lanka? 6.3 Significant or justification             The study will be a significant endeavor in promoting awareness on the dangers and risks of tsunamis and how to alert people to react proactively in case of tsunamis. The study will be helpful to both Indonesian and Sri Lankan government to religiously conduct, place and monitor the efficiency of disaster management as well as to communities currently living near the cost as the research could educate them on what they should do and what help are available when tsunami occurred. Moreover, this study will be an important contribution to a body of research concerning tsunami, economical impacts and disaster management. The research may also stumble upon new problems and hypotheses that require additional research. The study may also serve as a useful reference tool for future studies. Overall, it may help boosts the growth of disaster management research. 7.0 Research design The research will be exploratory in nature. Exploratory research will enable the study to look at the problem in both descriptive and exploratory manner. It will look into the problem by exploring the views of different sets of respondents, as well as by exploring different literatures related with the study. It will also conduct experiment to observe the subjects, with the hope to find answers to the questions the study ask. This study will also employ qualitative research method because it will try to find and build theories that will explain the relationship of one variable with another variable through qualitative elements in research.   In this qualitative study, In this study, primary and secondary research will be both incorporated. The reason for this is to be able to provide adequate discussion for the readers that will help them understand more about the issue and the different variables that involve with it. The primary data for the study will be represented by the survey results that will be acquired from the respondents. On the other hand, the literature reviews to be presented in the second chapter of the study will represent the secondary data of the study. Secondary sources of data will come from published articles from journals, theses and related studies. 8.0 Deliverable             The things to be accomplished are illustrated in the following Gantt chart. TASK MONTH   1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th Select topic                   Undertake preliminary literature search                   <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify"> Define research questions</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify"> Write-up aims and objectives</li> </ul>                   Select appropriate methodology and locate sources of information. Confirm access.                   Write-up Dissertation Plan                   Undertake and write-up draft critical literature review.                   Secondary and Primary Data Detailed <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify"> Sources</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify"> Consulted</li> </ul>                   Research Findings: <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify"> Analyzed</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify"> Evaluated</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify"> Written-up</li> </ul>                   Discussion: <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify"> Research findings evaluated and discussed in relation to the literature review</li> </ul>                   Methodology written-up (including limitations and constraints)                   Main body of the report written-up and checked for logical structure                   <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify"> Conclusions drawn</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify"> Recommendations made</li> </ul>                   Introduction and Executive Summary written-up                   Final format and indexing                   Print                     9.0 Referencing Ardalan, A., LaPorte, R. E., Shubnikov, E. Linkov, F and Noji, E. K. Just-In-Time Lecture: Tsunami. Global Health Disaster Network.   Indonesia: Tsunami Summary. Asian Development Bank. Retrieved on 5 August 2008 from http://www.adb.org/media/Articles/2005/6618_tsunami_impact_Indonesia/default.asp?RegistrationID=guest.   Staff Writer. (2005). Food Supply and Food Security Situation in Countries Affected by the Asia Tsunami. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.   McKee, M. (2005). Power of tsunami earthquake heavily underestimated. New Scientist.   10.0 Appendix             No appendix specified yet. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Disaster Management Research Proposal

A Comparative Study of Economical Impacts and Disaster Management of Tsunami in Indonesia and Sri Lanka – Research Proposal 1.0 Title ...

Hurricane Katrina: Effects, Impacts and Implications

Hurricane Katrina: Effects, Impacts and Implications             On August 28-29, 2005, the news of hurricane Katrina hit the whole world as it struck the port of Louisiana and the Gulf Coast. Hurricane Katrina has greatly affected the immediate area hit by the said hurricane. Katrina is said to be perhaps the “single worst environmental catastrophe” to hit the United States as a result of a natural tragedy (, 2005). Thousands of homes were destructed by the water. Walls imploded as thick layers of sediment were scattered inside and out. Roofs collapsed and some homes were picked up by the water and moved into the middle of the streets, 2005). In addition, thousands of vehicles were reported to totally or mostly submerged and destructed and were scattered in unexpected places across the area, most of them dangerously leaning up against the roofs, staggering on fences; some were stacked up on top of each other, others crushed by the powerful water (, 2005). Moreover, commercial strips were completely ruined, as well as schools and public buildings. Power lines were toppled and gas stations were also ruined (, 2005). Environmental Effects             It was reported that there was a strong smell of petroleum vapors frequently encountered in the affected areas of the hurricane such as unpleasant smells of rotting sludge and unmistakable odors of widespread mold (2005). It must be noted that dust swirls into one’s lungs as heavy equipments move or as a breeze kicks it up. According to (2005), there were several reports regarding severe pollution and illnesses during the aftermath of hurricane Katrina. Ordinary people, rescue workers and police as well who have gone to the affected places of hurricane Katrina have had become sick after contact with the flood water or muck. Such illnesses included rashes and blisters from coming into contact with polluted water, infected sores irresponsive to antibiotics, nausea and vomiting, in addition to some respiratory problems like asthma to people who were exposed to fumes in contaminated area (, 2005).             According to U.S. Coast Guard and EPA data, there were 575 Katrina-related spills of petroleum and hazardous chemicals that has been reported as of September 11, 2005 (, 2005). (2005) noted that even just eleven considerable spills released practically seven million gallons of oil which only a portion of it cleaned up and majority of it not. In lined to this, there was also a considerable amount of gasoline and toxic fluids from vehicles and automobiles destroyed by the flood which added to the reports on spills and leaks of oil and toxic chemicals. Moreover, at least four hazardous waste sites in New Orleans were hit by the storm which had great potential releases of toxic wastes, not to mention the toxic sediment that has accumulated at the bottom of lakes, rivers and streams in industrialized areas over many decades due to industrial spills. According to experts, many of these hotspots have been stirred up and accordingly, the toxic sediments have been re-suspended and re-deposited by the storm and floodwater in large land areas such as residential communities (, 2005).   Impacts (2005) comments that the full impact of hurricane Katrina will not be understood for some time to come. However, the storm was said to impact not just the local environment but as well as the national and global settings. (2006) has outlined several impacts of hurricane Katrina on industries, fiscal impacts on Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas, macroeconomic impacts in the United States as well as global impacts. Industry impacts included energy production in the Gulf of Mexico – temporary loss of crude oil out (90%) and natural gas production (70%), shutdown of 12% of refineries; shipping/logistics – New Orleans’s port closed for weeks and traffic disruption; fishing and agriculture – loss of sugar cane crop (40%) and rice production, long term damage to oyster beds and shrimp industry; hospitality and gaming – short and long term loss of convention business in New Orleans and temporary interruption of gaming activity in Mississippi; and small businesses – all business closed for some time and many never reopened (, 2006).   As for the fiscal impacts, for Louisiana, there were 15 % lost of its sales, income and valorem tax base which is about $ 5 billion revenue loss. Also, New Orleans dismissed half of its municipal workforce. For Texas, it became the primary destination for evacuees which estimated a $ 1 billion for the provision of education and healthcare for the evacuees. There was also minor loss to tax base. Finally for Mississippi, it lost 25 % of its tax base and not to mention that it is already the poorest state in the U.S. with per capita income below 30 % below national level (, 2006). Macroeconomic impact in the U.S. included higher energy prices – rising of gasoline prices, natural gas prices and utility bills; overall inflation – producer/consumer price rates doubled compared to last year and increase in transportation costs and building materials prices; national output or GDP; and widening of federal budget deficit (, 2006;, 2005). Finally, global impacts include an increase in higher oil prices. Consequently, financial markets were affected as the storm was reported to destabilize impact on fast growing companies as well as an $ 80 billion loss to global insurance and reinsurance companies (, 2006). Environmental Implications Practically everyone is now aware of climate change and global warming. As there is occurrence of an extreme weather event such as hurricane Katrina, people wonder if it was caused by global warming. There has been so many assumptions that hurricanes will increase in frequency or intensity due to global warming, with higher wind speeds and greater precipitation (, 2006) According to, British Government’s chief scientific adviser, “global warming may be responsible for the devastation reaped by hurricane Katrina” (, 2005). It must be noted that scientists lack a detailed explanation for the effects of global warming in hurricane trends. However, in general, according to scientists and researchers, it makes sense that higher temperatures may increase hurricane strength. Heat is energy and energy is what drives hurricanes (, 2005). According to (2006), the frequency of hurricanes has not risen on average over the long term. Nevertheless, many scientists believe and claim that global warming will cause more intense hurricanes as rising sea surface temperatures offer energy for the intensification of storms. A recently published MIT study in Nature offers the first data analysis revealing that tropical storms are undeniably becoming more powerful and intense over time (, 2006) Furthermore, (2006) states that increasing ocean temperatures may very well influence tracks of hurricanes. Meaning, there is an increase in probability of hurricanes trailing through the Caribbean or making landfall on the east coast of United States. It must be noted though that this phenomenon is not yet very well comprehended; however, it was found out that a trail of unusually deep and warm water appears to have led hurricane Katrina right directly to the Gulf Coast when it hit Louisiana and Mississippi (2006).               Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Hurricane Katrina: Effects, Impacts and Implications

Hurricane Katrina: Effects, Impacts and Implications On August 28-29, 2005, the news of hurricane Katrina hit the whole worl...

NATURAL DISASTERS

Natural Disasters   Introduction A natural disaster is the consequence or effect of a hazardous event, occurring when human activities and natural phenomenon (a physical event, such as a volcanic eruption, earthquake, landslide etc. that does not affect human beings) become entangled. The resulting fatalities or property damages depend on the capacity of the population to support or resist the disaster (2004). This understanding is crystallized in the formulation: “disasters occur when hazards meet vulnerability” (, 1994). The archaeological record for natural disasters is a long one, as you might imagine. Over the ocean of human civilization, meaning the last 20,000 years or so, human societies have risen and fallen like the tide. The reasons for the rise of such societies are multiple, as are the reasons for their destruction: attacks from the outside, revolution from the inside, pollution or depletion of necessary resources. These are cultural factors at work, the effects of humans. But, all societies were and are also subject to natural disasters or, as the insurance people would like to say “acts of god.” The sites where the writer gathered the facts for the said report are the web site of the FEMA Disasters Community and an article about natural disasters from the site  While the complete facts about the books used are located on the reference part. The report consists of an introduction to the topic, facts on the different classifications of natural disasters and a concluding part about the said topic.   Natural Disasters: An Overview Natural disasters can be classified into two. The first one is natural disasters as a result of common natural phenomena. Under this category are the avalanche, blizzards and snowstorms, drought, earthquake, epidemic, famine, flood, forest fire, hailstorm, heat wave, hurricanes, tropical cyclones and typhoons, ice storm, lahar, landslides and mudslides, sinkholes, tornado, and tsunami. The second classification is the extreme natural disasters. Among them are the ice age, impact event, solar flare, super volcano, and mega tsunami. They are further discussed in detail on the latter part. Natural Disasters as a Result of Common Natural Phenomena An example of a gravity current consisting of granular material is an avalanche. An avalanche is a geophysical hazard involving a slide of a large snow (or rock) mass down a mountainside. It is caused when a buildup of snow is released down a slope. In here, lots of material or mixtures of different types of material fall or slide rapidly, under the force of gravity. Avalanches are often classified by what they are made of, for example snow, ice, rock or soil avalanches (although these may be called Landslides or Rockfalls). A mixture of these would be called a debris avalanche. Avalanches also one of the major dangers faced in the mountains during winter. A snowstorm, on the other hand, is a winter storm in which snow is its primary form of precipitation. When such a storm is complemented by winds above 32 mph that severely reduce visibility, it develops into a blizzard. Hazards from snowstorms and blizzards include traffic-related accidents, hypothermia for those unable to find shelter, as well as major disruptions to transportation and fuel and power distribution systems. A long-lasting weather pattern consisting of dry conditions with very little or no precipitation at all is called drought. Food and water supplies during this period can run low. Or worse, other conditions such as famine can result. Droughts can last for several years. And it is damaging predominantly in areas in which most of the residents depend more on agriculture for their survival. A famous example of a severe drought is the Dust Bowl. An earthquake is a sudden shift or movement in the tectonic plate of the Earth’s crust. On the surface, this is manifested by a moving and shaking of the ground. This can cause extreme damage to structures which are poorly built. On the other hand, the most powerful earthquakes can destroy even the best built of structures. Besides, they can also trigger secondary disasters, such as tsunamis and volcanic eruptions. Earthquakes occur along fault lines, and are often unpredictable. They are also capable of killing hundreds of thousands of people, such as in the incidence of the 1976 Tangshan, as well as the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquakes. An epidemic is defined as a massive outbreak and spread of an infectious disease. It is historically, the most dangerous of all natural disasters. Different epidemics are caused by different diseases. Black Death, smallpox, and AIDS are among the prominent ones. The Spanish flu of 1918, on the other hand, was the deadliest ever epidemic. It was responsible for the deaths of over 25-40 million people. The Black Death, which occurred in the fourteenth century, killed over twenty million people, which is one third of Europe’s population. Famine is a natural disaster depicted by a widespread lack of food in a region. It can also be characterized as a lack of agriculture foodstuffs, a lack of livestock, or a general lack of all foodstuffs which are vital for one’s basic nutrition and survival. Pre-existing conditions such as drought almost always caused this type of disaster. But social factors such as war may aggravate its effects. Particularly devastating examples include the Ethiopian famine and the Irish Potato Famine. On the other hand, a flood is a natural disaster caused by too much rain or water in a location, and could be caused by many different sets of conditions. Floods can be caused by extended rainfall from a storm, including thunderstorms, rapid melting of large amounts of snow, or rivers which swell from excess precipitation upstream and cause widespread damage to areas downstream, or less frequently the bursting of man-made dams or levees. A river which floods very often is the Huang He River in China, while a particularly damaging flood was the Great Flood of 1931. A natural disaster consisting of a fire which destroys a forested area is called a forest fire. It can be a great danger to people who live in forests as well as wildlife. Forest fires are generally started by lightning, but also by human negligence or arson, and can burn thousands of square kilometers. An example of a severe forest fire is the Oakland Hills firestorm. A hailstorm, on the other hand, is a natural disaster where numerous hailstones, which damage the location in which they fall, are produced by a thunderstorm. Hailstorms can be destructive to farm  fields, crops and equipment, in particular.  A remarkably damaging hailstorm is the one which hit Munich, Germany on August 31, 1986, felling thousands of trees and causing millions of dollars in insurance  claims. A heat wave is a disaster characterized by an extreme and unusual heat in the area in which it occurs. Heat waves are rare and require specific combinations of weather events to take place. It may include temperature inversions, katabatic winds, or other phenomena. The worst heat wave in recent history was the European Heat Wave of 2003. Hurricane, tropical cyclone, and typhoon are different names for the same phenomenon: a cyclonic storm  system that forms over the oceans. It is caused by evaporated water  that comes off of the ocean  and becomes a storm. The Coriolis Effect causes the storms to spin. And when this spinning mass of storms attains a wind speed greater than 74 mph, a hurricane is already declared. In the Atlantic Ocean, hurricane is used for these phenomena while it is called a tropical cyclone in the Indian. For the eastern Pacific, it is typhoon  whereas in the vicinity of Oceania, it is Willy Willies. The deadliest hurricane ever was the 1970 Bhola cyclone, at the same time as the Great Hurricane of 1780 was the deadliest hurricane in the Atlantic region. It is known to ravaged Martinique, St. Eustatius and Barbados. An ice storm is a particular weather event in which precipitation falls as rain, due to atmosphere conditions. It happens only in an area in which the temperature is below the freezing point of water. The rain falls to the ground, and immediately turns to ice, accumulating in that fashion. A heavy ice storm can cause large accumulations of ice, which in turn can cause trees  to fall over or lose branches, and power lines to snap. The worst recent ice storm was the 1998 Ice Storm that struck eastern Canada  and areas of the US northeast. A lahar is a type of natural disaster closely related to a volcanic eruption. It involves a large amount of material; including mud, rock, and ash sliding down the side of the volcano at a rapid pace. Entire towns can be destroyed and thousands of people can be killed by these flows, just in seconds. An excellent example is the Tangiwai disaster, as it killed an estimated twenty three thousand people in Armero, Colombia, during the 1985 eruption of Nevado del Ruiz. A landslide, on the other hand, is a disaster closely related to an avalanche. But instead of snow, it occurs involving actual elements of the ground, including rocks, trees, and parts of houses, anything else which may happen to be swept up. Landslides can be caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or general instability in the surrounding land. A special case of landslides includes mudslides or mud flows. In here, heavy rainfall causes loose soil on steep terrain to collapse and slide downwards. These occur with some regularity in parts of California after periods of heavy rain. Sinkholes are localized depression in the surface topography, usually caused by the collapse of a subterranean structure, such as a cave. Although rare, large sinkholes that develop suddenly in populated areas can lead to the collapse of buildings and other structures. A tornado is a natural disaster resulting from a thunderstorm. Tornadoes are violent, rotating columns of air which can blow at speeds between fifty and three hundred mph, and possibly higher. Tornadoes can occur one at a time, or can occur in large tornado outbreaks along squall lines or in other large areas of thunderstorm development. The most violent tornado ever recorded in terms of wind speed was the tornado which swept through Moore, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999. This tornado has wind speeds of three hundred eighteen mph measured by mobile doppler radar devices. Finally, a tsunami is a giant wave of water which rolls into the shore of an area with a height of over 15 m (50 ft). It comes from the Japanese words “津波” meaning harbor and wave. Tsunami can be caused by undersea earthquakes as in the 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake, or by landslides such as the one which occurred at Lituya Bay, Alaska. The tsunami generated by the 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake currently ranks as the deadliest tsunami in recorded history. The highest Tsunami ever recorded was estimated to be 85m (278 ft.) high. It appeared on April 24th, 1771, off Ishigaki Island, Japan. Extreme natural disasters An ice age is a geologic period. But, it could also be viewed in the light of a catastrophic natural disaster, since in an ice age, the climate all over the world would change and places which were once considered habitable would then be too cold to permanently inhabit. A side effect of an ice age could possibly be a famine, caused by a worldwide drought. An impact event is a natural disaster in which an extraterrestrial piece of rock or other material collides with the Earth. The exact consequences of a direct Earth impact would vary greatly with size of the colliding object, although in cases of medium to large impacts short-term climate change and a general failure of agriculture. An example would be the Tunguska event. A solar flare on the other hand, is a phenomenon where the sun suddenly releases a great amount of solar radiation, much more than normal. It is theorized that these releases of radiation could cause a widespread failure of communications technology across the globe. The exact implications of such a failure are unknown. Further studies are being carried out. A super volcano is an eruption which is considered to be thousands of times more massive than a normal eruption. If a volcano expels at least a thousand cubic kilometers of material, it is already declared as a super volcano. The last eruption of this magnitude occurred over 75,000 years ago at the Lake Toba. If such an eruption were to occur today, a wholesale general die-off of both animals and humans would occur, as well as a significant short-term climate change. And lastly, a mega tsunami is a term used to describe very large tsunamis, by the popular media. They are a highly local effect, either occurring on shores extremely close to the origin of a tsunami, or in deep, narrow inlets. The largest waves are caused by a very large landslide, such as a collapsing island, into a body of water. They can potentially reach twenty km inland in low-lying regions. How are we affected by natural disasters?             Natural disasters can bring about high death tolls. One proof is the record of a total of 158,551 deaths associated with earthquakes around the world between the years 1980-2000 (Source: ). For the tropical cyclone related deaths, it has a record of 251,384 total deaths worldwide, for the same years. For floods, it was 170,010 deaths.             But, it is not the only effect of natural disasters to us. Annual economic losses are also associated with such disasters, which averaged to US$ 659.9 billion in the year 1990s. Also, eighty five percent of the people exposed to such disasters live in countries having either medium or low human development.               Water-related hazards affect millions of people, putting human security at risk and slowing down socioeconomic activities. These are major features of natural disasters worldwide. At almost any point in time, a hazard is threatening communities in terms of both the lives of the inhabitants and their properties. Few of these events are reported in the international media due to their relatively small impact. However, events like floods in Bangladesh and Haiti and, tsunami in Asia during 2004 drew significant international attention. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the trend is probably leading to worse scenarios, as the magnitude and frequency of floods and droughts might increase during the twenty first century due to climate change. Other factors, such as population growth, increased wealth, demographic shifts, and changes in land use and the value of various goods might also result in an increased level of damage and loss of life associated with water-related disasters. The destruction of infrastructure, the erosion of livelihoods, damage to the integrity of ecosystems and architectural heritage, injury, illness and death are direct outcomes of disaster. But disaster losses interact with and can also aggravate other stresses and shocks such as a financial crisis, a political or social conflict, disease (especially HIV/AIDS), and environmental degradation. And such disaster losses may set back social investments aiming on ameliorating poverty and hunger, provide access to education, health services, safe housing, drinking water and sanitation, or to protect the environment as well as economic investments that provide employment and income. Conclusion             Natural disaster has a tremendous effect not only physically but also on the mental aspects of an individual especially the younger ones. Losses due to natural and man-made disasters will continue to increase because of our continuing population growth and the increase of the concentration of growth in vulnerable areas such as coastal regions, flood plains, and seismically active zones. As a result, more lives will be lost, more property will be destroyed, and the social and economic fabric of disaster-prone communities will be disrupted. But this does not have to be so. The global scope of disasters requires that we coordinate our efforts for their mitigation on an international basis. Advances in the science and technology of hazard mitigation now provide the means to reduce significantly losses from natural hazards. But we have to commit ourselves to understanding these hazards better and to applying techniques that reduce our vulnerability. We need to explore the feasibility of concerted scientific and engineering efforts in reducing the loss of life and property through programs of public education and of effective early warning systems. The development of early warning systems with an adequate array of monitoring instruments for the purpose of collecting necessary data and information for disaster evaluation, is necessary for establishing relative potential risks. Public educational efforts and rapid communication networks are needed for transmitting information on potential disaster risks and for warning purposes in order to save lives and minimize damage to property.             The time has come to bring the full force of scientific and technological advances to the reduction of human tragedy and economic losses from natural and man-made disasters. We must take an integrated approach to disaster reduction, bringing new emphasis to research on disasters, on pre-disaster planning, on preparedness, and on disaster prevention, while we sustain our post-disaster relief capabilities. Our humanitarian efforts must be broadened to include disaster education and preparedness of the public as well as early warning systems in which people at risk receive, understand, and act upon the warning information conveyed.         References                   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

NATURAL DISASTERS

Natural Disasters Introduction A natural disaster is the consequence or effect of a hazardous event, occurring when human activities a...

Given that disasters create opportunities for active learning, why do they repeat?

“Given that disasters create opportunities for active learning, why do they repeat?”   Introduction CRED or the Center for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters defined disasters as exceptional events that require external assistance. The word disaster is actually taken from combined Latin terms dis (bad) and astrum (star); this is based on the conventional belief that dreadful incidents happen when the stars are badly positioned. Disasters can also be categorized into two types: natural and man-made. Earthquake, flood, tsunami and volcanic eruption are some common examples of natural disasters whereas man-made disasters can be in the form of civil disorder, war or terrorism (Hoffman & Oliver-Smith, 2002). When a number of disasters occur and remain uncontrolled, a disaster may rise. Compared to disaster, the impact of a disaster may be greater, particularly in terms of losses. Disaster may then occur due to financial threats, physical disasters, technological failures, security leaks and other similar examples. While disaster and disaster may be related, there are also some differences. For instance, while both disaster and disaster are considered unpredictable events, disaster are not unexpected events (Coombs, 1999). This suggests in general, plans to counter disaster can be done ahead of time. As several mismanaged disasters lead to the formation of a disaster, multiple factors are necessary in order to trigger a disaster from happening; thus, in terms of lifespan, disaster often affect people longer than disasters as several issues would have to be addressed to resolve it (Borodzicz, 2004). Within a small environment such as an situation, disaster may also occur. With different disasters may it be natural or man-made disasters, government authorities play crucial role in dealing with it. It has been said that in times of disaster, chances of survival increases when more and more people help each other. In particular, disaster management is carried out effectively as emergency agencies, business sectors, local and national governments work together. Survival plans are developed ahead in order to address disastrous events. Primarily, the goal of this paper is to analyze the assumption: “Given that disasters create opportunities for active learning, why do they repeat?” For this analysis, the discussion will include how the government, local and federal learned from disasters and states some reasons why disaster happen again inspite of the idea of active learning.   Analysis and Discussions Accordingly, the worst reaction to the aftermath of every disaster would be to adopt more heavy-handed federalized procedures, which would undercut the very kinds of responses which proved the most effective. Accordingly, in every disaster, the government (local and national) has their accountabilities and responsibilities to ensure immediate recovery.  And in every disaster new learnings come which when used properly can be able to prevent further damages from any disasters. There is a supposition that disasters create opportunities for active learning. Accordingly, active learning happens when an individual are given the chance to take a more interactive relationship with a particular subject (like disaster management), encouraging the people to generate rather than simply to receive specific knowledge. It can be said that active learning is an exceptionally efficient approach which government and other local authorities can use to manage disasters.  It is noted that the world has experienced various disasters as well as human tragedies in the past several years that some worry about how these disasters can be prevented. Although there are learnings from various disasters, it seems that the tragedy keeps on repeating and repeating, like it happened for the first time.              One of the essential procedures in applying what has been learned in the previous case of disasters is disaster management is the development of a disaster management plan (DMP). It is stated that stated that a DMP is comprised of the processes and steps suitable for addressing both real and perceived disaster. Similar to the concept of disaster management, the DMP is created in advance so as to achieve more efficient and speedier responses to disaster. It has been noted that those who are involved in disaster management) should also learn to have their own DMPs. The components of the plan are purely dependent on the needs and priorities of the situation; developing this type of program is an important learning to be applied effectively in case of disaster and its components is also based on the types of disaster that are likely or frequently affects the situation. For instance, this active learning experience can include the steps citing what the situation would do or say to relevant parties in the wake of a disaster. This component is typically referred to as disaster-response strategies; these are actually message repertoires that aim to repair or protect the people from the occurrence of disasters. In integrating this procedure in the disaster management planning, consistency is very crucial. In particular, another learning that can be considered in disaster response is related to stakeholder in a consistent manner. Coombs (1999) stated that in order for situations to deliver consistent replies to the stakeholders, a unified response must be developed. This was supported by Barton (2001) and referred to this strategy as the audience-centric approach, which basically stresses the need for situations to relay information with similar feel and content to relevant parties, particularly in times of disaster. Applying this principle in disaster management development is significant as it prevents the delivery of mixed signals or incomplete information to affected situational members; this then can help prevent further confusion and tension within the situation. In addition, this principle clearly emphasizes that in order to effectively manage an situational disaster, affected audiences must be given due priority. Accordingly, disaster linked with natural hazards can result to significant learnings which can be used for changes in the socio-ecological systems. When disasters happen, people give emphasis on the direct disaster impacts and also the relief and recovery operations and the factors that affects the successful implementation of the response. Although this focus is very significant, it is noteworthy that there has been little research on the characteristics as well as the progress of learnings induced by disasters.  Learning, as distinctive from impacts, consists of formal and informal learnings, in terms of responses to disaster events and its direct and indirect impacts. While those smaller disasters that happen do not necessarily bring learnings for the people involved, major disasters have the potential to enable people learn different techniques and approaches which can be used to have a better preparedness and response for future disasters. The main premise is that knowing and understanding how a disaster occurs and what should be the most effective ways on preventing further damages for such incident.  There are various reasons why disasters and its damages and effects keep on repeating, despite of the learnings that the government and authorities have experienced in the past disasters. One important reason is that most of the people involved in disaster management are lacking natural structures or the leadership which can respond quickly and well to these disasters.  There are many volunteers and many agencies who wants to help but the government fail to deliver the compassion to those most in need. The government agencies, volunteers, and disaster coordinating council and board members must be able to continuously exert an effort to model collaboration and coordination by guaranteeing that planning and reporting needs are rationalized and coordinated. In addition, the central government agencies, volunteers, and disaster coordinating council and board members must include additional works to ensure better coordination of coexisting policy initiatives with regards to their disaster preparedness program and disaster management approach. This existing policy is important in maintaining the efficacy of the changes made to the prevention systems of the agency at the central government. In addition, an effort is also required to more totally incorporate the role of central government coordinators to the role of coordinators in the local (county and tribal level). In addition, it is also recommended that both central government and local government most have individuals who will continue to advocate the enhancement of the coordination, increased resources for prevention and for implementation of the selected best practices programs to maintain the success of the managing disasters and disaster in the country.  Another plausible reason is the inability of the government to provide intensive support to the appointed central government coordinators in order to focus their efforts in the most important areas. Which usually happens, due to political rivalries and issues? It is noted that a successful counties tends to be those in which resources were devoted to coordination, compared to the used of both coordination programming. This means that focusing at what area at a time may lead to a successful implementation of program than focusing on various areas at a time. However, because of the inability of the people involve considering it during a disaster, more problems occur. Previous disaster should be a guide for the people to know what to do in case this happens again. Preparedness and  response is the key aspects that should be learned. However, it seems that government agencies have not been able to consider this and do not use what they learned from the past. It is important that the people specifically the key stakeholder in the local area and the state area must have the ability to identify what aspects of pthe previous preparedness and response programme should be adopted to the change implementation in order to maintain the success of the disaster management approach and response. In addition, if people will cooperate in every endeavor that the federal government will impose there is a greater possibility of achieving the purpose of the project for the sake of the state as a whole.              Conducting a disaster management approach and engaging in this kind of activities is a very difficult task, specifically if the program imposed will be conducted in to ensure safety of various individuals. It can be said that this evaluation will benefit both the central and local government to know that coordination is still the best approach in managing risks to protect the people or even the environment.    Following any disasters from the past, people can see the best of human nature and the worst of bureaucracy. Most of the headlines convey what should be lacking in the government like the inability of the poor nations to reach victims immediately, systems failure, and others.  In addition, another aspect that can be considered as a reason why disasters seem to repeat is in line with the ability of the authorities to generate effective decision making in times of managing disasters.  Disasters come in different ways and the management of these disasters comes into different packages. It is where the government should learn and use it for future emergencies. Take for example the learnings that the United Kingdom have from their previous disasters. The United Kingdom government has launched a review of disaster preparations in 1991 to see what went wrong in their disaster management approach. In the year 2003, the government has published a modified aim for the national emergency planning which is to improve the resilience of the country to the drastic impact of disruptive challenges or disasters (Civil   Contingencies       Secretariat;     2003).    This strategy specifically relies on resilience which is considered as an opposed to risk reduction by anticipation. Resilience is seen as the ability to pre-empt disaster.  Accordingly, resilience is the ability to reorganize resources as well as actions to respond to actual hazards, after it happens (Comfort; 1994, p157).             As cited in Comfort (1994), Wildavsky defined resilience in accordance with decentralization, in which anticipation involves the prediction of danger, specialized protection and security, centralizations and detailed standards (Comfort; 1994, p157). All of these, except for the context of centralization are determined as duties for local government within the Civil Contingencies Bill which is included in part 1, sections 2, 4, 5, 8 & 9). Herein, the general requirements of the Boll, as a picture of present government thinking, seem to ensure that central government’s aim is to take distance to take any response to a local disaster while attempting to make sure that there is sufficient local preparation. Nonetheless, the formal preparations do not usually address the idiosyncrasies of disasters.             Among thee peculiarities is the requirement to be flexible in response and to be prepared to be more innovative. Innovation has been determined as a key factor since it has the ability to facilitate the response to the needs during the times of disaster.  The context of innovation needs room to function. Hence, an overly centralized approach of disaster response could suppress opportunities for accurate and appropriate innovation. With this regard, the central government’s aims to remain on the disaster scene somewhat detached from local   emergencies have been justified with this aspect and maintain its consistencies with a context of   appropriate   decentralization   (HM Treasury, Dept, Trade & Industry, Office of the Deputy Prime minister; 2003, 19). Another reason why disasters and it drastic affects keep on repeating is because of the inability of the government to consider centralized approach for every disaster. Each disaster was treated as new, affecting their ways on managing and handling it.  It is said that disaster management team may find their sudden experience of a disaster as well as its management a totally unexpected challenge during the time when they are themselves in a state of shock. In this regard, people involved needs to have the philosophy and idea of disaster response as well as the dynamics of disaster impact. Accordingly, those people who are involved in a specific disaster may also make use of the lessons they have learned on their previous experiences since they are able to be heavily involved in the actual relief stage and the trend is for them to have greater involvement in long-term recovery programmes when a disaster happens.             It can be mentioned that the leading agencies who are much more familiar with the nature of disasters as well as good practice in responding to them have learned it from their actual experiences in various disasters, however, most of them could not eventually used what they have learned in other disasters, since most disasters are distinctive in many ways. No one can really foresee what would be its effect and the damages that it can create. What people, especially government can do is to just prevent further harm and atrocities. In  practice, it is said that most of the disaster preparedness and response organization have high staff turnover as a consequent risk even of agencies that regularly consider ‘reinventing wheels’, because the individual official are being challenged with the practical problems of having individuals who has no prior personal experience of such a situation.   Penning-Roswell (1995) has noted that at least in the situation of natural disasters, although there is a tendency to concentrate the response level of the government, because of their intimate and wide knowledge of the environment in which the disaster is happening, it is progressively more recognized that a broader geographical as well as disciplinary perspective brings a better consideration which sometimes lacked or inefficient, causing disaster and its damaging effect to happen again.   Accordingly, there is evidence that little studies and researches have been conducted over the past few years into what the design approach for a common good hazard agency. Such argument shows that this is due to the tendency to give emphasis on the impacts of the individual rather than the property of the value constructed agency whose primary aim is to meet the needs of the target audience (Penning-Roswell, 1995), in line with the disaster. Every institutions is marked by its own unique internal culture as well as priorities (Ott;   1989).  According to Quarantelli   (1982), there are three specific difficulties that occurs from this in ensuring efficient coordination among disaster response bodies. First is that the coordination of interests among the public and private sectors may be hard due to the different perspectives.  Secondly, normal daily networks as well as coordination systems may differ qualitatively from those employed din times of major emergency and lastly, the term coordination itself ma have various connotation to various institutions or even parts hereof.  Accordingly, to expect a naturally efficient and consistent response to a wide range of disaster emergency situation would   seem   to   fly   in the face of these factors of the organization or corporation al response to emergencies. Another reason why a disaster keeps on repeating even when people and agencies involved in managing disasters learned from previous occurrence is the restrictions and limitations of the things that they learned. It can be said that what the government and agencies learned in a specific disaster is constrained only for such particular disaster or situation and might not be useful in other disasters.             It is said that during a disaster, survival plans should be developed ahead in order to address disastrous events.  However, in most cases, survival plans are only done after the disaster happened; hence, affecting the context of having effective disaster management approach that can be useful in preventing another disaster. Through this, more lives can be saved and restoration would be immediate. In the same way, disaster management involves advance planning as well as the participation of the natural members. Moreover, planning ahead so as to overcome incoming disaster can also result to a number of advantages for the situations. Specifically, advance plans for natural disaster help in saving more lives.  Readying means to counter natural disaster also helps situations in establishing rehearsed actions, which contributes to damage control. Enforcing strategies that would address disaster is also useful in protecting the future in case another disaster occurs. Failing to apply these means of disaster management on the other hand, can lead to loss of both financial and public confidence. In worst cases, this can even lead to irreversible damages.   Conclusion For the success of the disaster response and to be able to easily achieve the objective of reducing the risks of these disasters, it is recommended that the project must be able to provide both agencies from central government and local government clear roles and comprehensible expectations in order to deliberate their functions well. What the government and disaster management bodies can do is to become more responsive, developing a disaster management team, appointing team leaders and developing disaster management plan in cooperation with the all governing bodies so as to ensure that what these people learned from previous disasters can be collaborated with other disaster management team for a better outcome.  By means of combining human capability and advance planning, risks and damages brought about by natural or man-made disasters disaster will be experienced within manageable levels.  It is important so that all the key stakeholders involved and knowledgeable about the disaster management should have clear understanding on their roles and responsibilities so as not to be confused on the objectives and goals of the said management approach.             It can be concluded that disasters repeat or happen again in spite of the learnings that the government and other agencies encountered because of different reasons, mostly, uncontrollable reasons. In this regard, preparedness and response programs run by the government should collaborate with other agencies in the local and national level to ensure that community-centered programs to prevent further damagers cost by the disaster. It is recommended that the people who are involved in previous disasters should conduct lectures to share what they have learned and to ensure that only important information is being disseminated.  Those who are involved in the previous disasters should give emphasis on the priorities for action in relation to learning. One of the ways to do is to establish approaches to promote learning to generate from past events. These include, documentation, evidence analysis, dissemination of key issues and information, education and training and creation of learning organization. It is said that while there are essential individual aspects in each disaster which strikes a specific society, particular solutions for their recovery, there are patterns which frequently recur and the disaster management team should be aware of that. These patterns can be useful for future disasters.  It may be critical to discard the experiences of others as being immaterial or irrelevant to their own disaster situation. In addition, the team should also learn from other people in the international level.   Reference Clark, J., & Harman, M. (2004). On disaster management and response and rehearsing a plan. Risk Management, 51(5), 40-44. Comfort, L.K. (1994) “Risk & Resilience: Inter-organizational Learning Following The Northridge Earthquake of 17 January 1994”. In “Journal Of Contingencies And Disaster management and response”, vol.2, no.3. pp.157-170.   Hoffman, S. & Oliver-Smith, A. (Eds.) (2002). Catastrophe and Culture: The Anthropology of Disaster. Santa Fe NM: School of American Research Press.   Giddens   A   (1998)   “Risk   Society:   the   Context   of   British   Politics”   ed.   Jane ranklin. In The Politics of Risk Society. Polity Press; Cambridge.   O’Riordan, T. (1996) “Exploring the Role of Civic Science in Risk Management” eds. Christopher Hood             & David K. C. Jones. In Accident & Design; Contemporary Debates in Risk Management. UCL Press; London.   Ott, J., S. (1989) “The Organizational Culture Perspective”. Brooks/Cole; Pacific Grove, California.   Penning-Roswell, E. (1996) “Criteria for the Design of Hazard Mitigation Institutions” eds. Christopher Hood  & David K. C. Jones. In Accident & Design; Contemporary Debates in Risk Management. UCL Press; London.   Seeger, M.W., Sellnow, T.L., & Ulmer, R.R. (1998). Communication, situation, and disaster. In M. E. Roloff (Ed.). Communication Yearbook, 21 (pp. 231-276). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.   Shaluf, I., Ahmadun, F. & Said, A.M. (2003).  A review of disaster and disaster. Disaster Prevention and Management, 12(1), 24-32.     Woollacott, M. (1998a) “Risky Business, Safety” ed. Jane Franklin. In The Politics of Risk Society. Polity Press; Cambridge.   Woollacott, M. (1998b) “The Politics of Prevention” ed. Jane Franklin. In The Politics of Risk Society. Polity Press; Cambridge.         Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Given that disasters create opportunities for active learning, why do they repeat?

“Given that disasters create opportunities for active learning, why do they repeat?” Introduction CRED or the Center for Research on...