Research Articles Base: Management Theory

Essay On Management

This essay critically discusses the question, what is management? It will be based on the critical analysis of the author about management using literatures and articles that have been written by scholars who specializes on the management field. Thus, it will help the reader to have a wider view about what management really is and how it really functions. It will also critically demonstrate the links between theory and practice of management. The first paragraph of this essay will be a brief discussion regarding the definition of management as how the world knows it. The succeeding paragraphs will be a review of the related literatures regarding the topic, which includes the theories and practices in management, followed by the conclusion of this essay, which will then define management through critical evaluations of the available literatures and the personal knowledge of the author about the topic.             There are many kinds of ways that management has been defined. One can definitely say that management is all about handling people, making sure that somebody is doing his job well. Then again, another one might also say that management is all about handling businesses or money. Some may also define it as a means of business dealing, negotiation or arrangement. A judicious use of means to accomplish an end; conduct directed by art or address; skillful treatment; cunning practice; — often in a bad sense; and the collective body of those who manage or direct any enterprise or interest; the board of managers. With all the interpretations above, here is a more refined definition of management. It came from The Management Assistant Program for Nonprofits and Mr. Carter McNamara (1999) wrote it like this: Traditionally, the term “management” refers to the activities (and often the group of people) involved in the four general functions: planning, organizing, leading and coordinating of resources. Note that the four functions recur throughout the organization and are highly integrated. Emerging trends in management include assertions that leading is different than managing, and that the nature of how the four functions are carried out must change to accommodate a “new paradigm” in management. All of these definitions are true, and if we sum it all up, as McNamara points it out, management would simply refer to activities involved in its four general functions: planning, which means identifying goals, objectives, methods, resources needed to carry out methods, responsibilities and dates for completion of tasks; organizing, which determines to achieve the goals in an optimum fashion; leading, including to set direction for the organization, groups and individuals and also influence people to follow that direction;  and controlling, which means the organization’s systems, processes and structures to reach effectively and efficiently reach goals and objectives. This includes ongoing collection of feedback, and monitoring and adjustment of systems, processes and structures accordingly and coordinating of resources. The previous interpretation is what is known as the traditional interpretation of management. Another interpretation has been asserted by some writers, teachers, and practitioners – that the above view is rather outmoded and that management needs to focus more on leadership skills, e.g., establishing vision and goals, communicating the vision and goals, and guiding others to accomplish them. They also assert that leadership must be more facilitative, participative and empowering in how visions and goals are established and carried out (Carter McNamara, PhD, 1999). The author will discuss more about leadership later on this essay. Next, we will tackle all about the different contemporary theories in management.             There are three contemporary theories in management that are currently available. They are the contingency theory, systems theory, and chaos theory. “The contingency theory is a management theory, which asserts that when managers make a decision, they must take into account all aspects of the current situation and act on those aspects that are key to the situation at hand. Basically, it’s the approach that ‘it depends.’ For example, the continuing effort to identify the best leadership or management style might now conclude that the best style depends on the situation. If one is leading troops in the Persian Gulf, an autocratic style is probably best. Next is the systems theory that has had a significant effect on management science and understanding organizations. First, let’s look at “what is a system?” A system is a collection of part unified to accomplish an overall goal. If one part of the system is removed, the nature of the system is changed as well. For example, a pile of sand is not a system. If one removes a sand particle, you’ve still got a pile of sand. However, a functioning car is a system. Remove the carburetor and you’ve no longer got a working car. A system can be looked at as having inputs, processes, outputs and outcomes. Systems share feedback amongst each of these four aspects of the systems. Lastly, we have the chaotic theory. As chaotic and random as world events seem today, they seem as chaotic in organizations, too. Yet for decades, managers have acted on the basis that organizational events can always be controlled. A new theory (or some say “science”), chaos theory, recognizes that events indeed are rarely controlled. Many chaos theorists (as do systems theorists) refer to biological systems when explaining their theory. They suggest that systems naturally go to more complexity, and as they do so, these systems become more volatile (or susceptible to cataclysmic events) and must expend more energy to maintain that complexity. As they expend more energy, they seek more structure to maintain stability. This trend continues until the system splits, combines with another complex system or falls apart entirely. Sound familiar? This trend is what many see as the trend in life, in organizations and the world in general (Carter McNamara, PhD, 1999).”             According to Jason Tanz (2003) of Fortune Small Business Magazine, management is more of an art, than a science because he claims that theorist have not discovered yet the most efficient way to run a company. While it’s true that the theories mentioned above would be effective when applied, it is also true that some people are not satisfied with these theories, like Mr. Tanz for example. It also depends on many factors like the psychological aspects, or the way we deal with people. Because management involves people, whether it is the manager or the ones that is being managed, it means that management also involves emotions. According to Gerard M. Blair (2003), a Senior Lecturer in Project Management in the Department of Electrical Engineering, in The University of Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom, management of a small team, human factor is crucial to success. A best example of a management mistake that leads to emotional distress would be the common mistakes committed on sexual harassment charges. Lee Ligget, a former General Counsel to the University of Houston System, Virginia Polytechnic and State University, and the University of Vermont, has written a list of common mistakes of management regarding sexually oriented issues. The mistakes included in the list are: Management does not consult with the Assistant to the President for Social Equity before taking action and/or when it is aware of actual or potential sexual harassment situations; Management dissuades the complainant from complaining about her/his sexual harassment situation; Management overacts by taking action before the investigation is completed; Management does not tell the alleged offender the specific allegations; Management does not provide the alleged offender an opportunity to respond to each allegation; Management interferes with the investigation; Management doesn’t take it seriously; etc. Another example but a rather minor one, was published in the web by a Dr. Bob Kizlik (2003), regarding the mistakes most new teachers commit on managing students. Some of the mistakes included in Mr. Kizlik’s list are: over praising students for doing what is expected; talk too fast, and are sometimes shrill; overemphasize the negative; are way too serious and not much fun; are way too much fun and not serious; and many more management errors that are hazardous to the human emotions and development. Furthermore, these are just some of the examples of management errors committed on the psychological aspect. We must always remember that the most complex part of management is managing individuals who, obviously, have individual thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and interests. Blair (2003) states that a manager must consider his own behavior, on how he relates with his people. A manager must also manage to make a sustainable approach to maintain enthusiasm and commitment from his team as a form of motivation. He should also have a sense of achievement for himself and to know how to recognize those who deserve recognition, at the same time, giving his team a sense of responsibility. He must also provide advancement for his people, whether it is the long-term issues of promotion, salary rises, job prospects; and the short-term issues (which you control) of increased responsibility, the acquisition of new skills, or broader experiences. A manager must also know how to troubleshoot individual problems of his team as it arises. An article on an internet advertisement by Management Center Europe stresses that the art of people management is one of the most crucial skill a manager can possess. These are just some of the proofs on how important managing an individual really is. Another factor that should be considered in management is time management. Although this is not the main topic of the essay, it is important to look into it as to clearly define what management is all about since it is used in all kinds or forms of management. A managerial task would be less successful without time management because, as inhabitants of a civilized world, we use time as a tool to balance our daily activity in life. Without time, there is no balance of activity: without balance of activity, there would be less chance of success. Let us now go to the personal time management. What is personal time management? Blair (2003) has written the meaning of personal time management as “about controlling the use of your most valuable (and undervalued) resource.” There are many tools in time management, and it includes the following: Finding out how much your time is worth; Making sure you concentrate on the right things; Checking how you really spend your time; Planning to solve a problem; Tackling the right tasks first; and deciding what your personal priorities should be (Mind Tools Unlimited). Personal time management also allows one to be prepared with meetings, plan every hour and each day efficiently, secures long-term projects from being neglected, and many other that is advantageous to ones self.             Traditional views state that managing is as the same as leadership because management is associated with the four major functions: planning, organizing, leading and controlling/coordinating. “However, many educators, practitioners and writers disagree with this traditional view” (Carter McNamara, PhD, 1999). To know the difference between leadership and management, we must first define what leadership is. “Many people believe that leadership is simply being the first, biggest or most powerful. Leadership in organizations has a different and more meaningful definition. Very simply put, a leader is interpreted as someone who sets direction in an effort and influences people to follow that direction. How they set that direction and influence people depends on a variety of factors that we’ll consider later on below. To really comprehend the “territory” of leadership, you should briefly scan some of the major theories, notice various styles of leadership and review some of the suggested traits and characteristics that leaders should have.” (Carter, McNamara, PhD, 1999). It sounds pretty similar to the definition of management, but it is not. Let’s take a look on how a bestselling author defines the difference between leadership and management.  According to Jim Clemmer, a bestselling author and internationally acclaimed keynote speaker, workshop/retreat leader, and management team developer on leadership, change, customer focus, culture, teams, and personal growth, “to manage is to control, handle, or manipulate. To lead is to guide, influence, or persuade. You manage things — systems, processes, and technology. You lead people.”  With the informations mentioned, we can clearly say that management and leadership are two different concepts. We can say that managers lead by the book, while leaders lead by the heart. But are there any possibilities that leadership and management combine together?  There are views that separating leading from managing can be destructive.  Drawing information from Carter and McNamara (1999) once again, we will find out that leading is different than planning, organizing and coordinating because “leading is focused on influencing people, while the other functions are focused on “resources” in addition to people. But that difference is not enough to claim that “leading is different than managing” any more than one can claim that “planning is different than managing” or “organizing is different than managing”. The assertion that “leading is different than managing” — and the ways that these assertions are made — can cultivate the view that the activities of planning, organizing and coordinating are somehow less important than leading. The assertion can also convince others that they are grand and gifted leaders who can ignore the mere activities of planning, organizing and coordinating — they can leave these lesser activities to others with less important things to do in the organization. This view can leave carnage in organizations.” It is clear now that management and leadership have a relationship, but not that strong. Undoubtedly, both skills are needed to make an organization successful. It also looks almost impossible for a single individual to possess both qualities. Here are more differences of a leader from a manager as was written by Jim Clemmer: “Management is about systems, processes, and technology; leadership is about people, culture and context. Management is about goals, standards, and measurements; leadership is preferred future, principal, and purpose. Management is all about control; leadership is about commitment. Management is about strategic planning; leadership is about strategic opportunism. Management is a way of doing; leadership is a way of being. Management is about directing; leadership is about serving. Management is about responding and reacting; leadership is about initiating and originating. Management is a continuous improvement of what is; and leadership is an innovative breakthrough of what could be.” (Aburdene Naisbitt 1992). With what Clemmel wrote, it would be very, very hard for someone to say that management is as the same as leadership. Thus, we can conclude that management is definitely not leadership.             What is management development planning? It is also one of the most important aspects of management for it is “an effort (hopefully, planned in nature) that enhances the learner’s capacity to manage organizations (or oneself). Very simply put, managing includes activities of planning, organizing, leading and coordinating resources. A critical skill for anyone is the ability to manage their own learning.” (Carter, McNamara, PhD, 1999). The history of management development planning started in the turn of the century. In the past, organizations developed managers, first by recognizing an individual’s strong occupational knowledge about the organization’s products or services. These individuals were promoted to first-level positions that included work direction. One cannot say they supervised in the current sense of the word, that is, they usually didn’t delegate, support career counseling, conduct performance reviews, etc. Rather, they told workers what to do and workers did it. These work directors had little training about supervision, e.g., about delegating, interpersonal skills, stress management, career developments, etc. Management training in the 50’s and 80’s focused on covering certain standard topics or types of activities in the organization, e.g., planning, organizing, finances, sales, accounting, etc. Students would immerse themselves in the current course, then leave that course to immerse in the next. However, reality is that a manager in the workplace seldom solves a problem by applying his or her knowledge of one specific topic (then goes on to solve the next problem by applying his or her knowledge of another specific topic). A highly effective manager integrates expertise across various management topics. Yet few management schools provided opportunity for management students to integrate and apply information from their various courses. With the Human Relations movement, training programs recognized the need to cultivate supervisory skills, e.g., delegating, career development, motivating, coaching, mentoring, etc. Progressive management schools now have students review a wide body of management topics and learn those topics by applying that knowledge in the workplace and reflecting on that application. Learning activities incorporate learners’ real-world activities in the workplaces or their lives. Assignment includes reflection and analysis on real-world experience. Learning is enhanced through continuing dialogue and feedback among learners. Very good schools manage to include forms of self-development, too, recognizing that the basis for effective management is effective self-management. Effective management development programs help students (learners) take a system’s view of their organizations, including review of how major functions effect each other. Assignments include recognizing and addressing effects of one actions on their entire organization.” (Carter, McNamara, PhD, 1999)             Based on the previous paragraphs, we can conclude that management means supervision, managing, handling or control. We can also conclude that regardless of the theories that management has, managing something or someone would only be effective depending on the person who does the task. Management is limited in a sense that it cannot be effective without leadership, as leadership cannot be effective without it. But these two different concepts must not be merged into a single individual. Two different individuals as to make an organization successful should possess them. Therefore, when one practices management, one must remember that management is different from leadership. Leadership is much more based on principles, while management dwells more on rules. We must also remember that in management, human emotions is always present and is a factor not to be taken for granted. It is one of the most complex parts of management. Another thing that we can conclude about this essay is that management is always open to errors and mistakes. It is often made when a manager disregard the feelings or individuality of his team. We have learned that in management, we also deal with human emotions and it would be an enormous mistake to set this factor aside. Finally, we can conclude that, with all of the definition that has been given to management, management can simply be defined as making sure that everything is right on schedule, or on the right track. References: Aburdene, P and Naisbitt J. (1992). Megatrends for Women. Villard Books, New York Clemmer, Jim (1996-2003). Practical Leadership: Inspiring Actions, Achieving Results. The Clemmer Group, Ontario N2P 2A4 Canada Kizlik, Bob (2003, December 8). Ideas For Avoiding Classroom Management Mistakes And How To Deal With Parents Liggett, Lee (no date). Common Mistakes by Management. University of Vermont, Canada   Management Center Europe (2002). Managing People: Achieving the Best Results with Your Team and Colleague. Brussels, Belgium McNamara, Carter PhD, (1999). Introduction to Management. St. Paul, Minnesota: Management Assistant Program For Nonprofits. McNamara, Carter PhD, (1999). Overview of Leadership in Organization. St. Paul, Minnesota: Management Assistant Program For Nonprofits. McNamara, Carter PhD, (1999).Management Development Planning. St. Paul, Minnesota: Management Assistant Program For Nonprofits Mind Tools (1995-2003), Time Management Skills: Making the Most of your Time. Mind Tools Unlimited, West Sussex, RH15 8DY, United Kingdom Tanz, Jason (2003). A Brief History Of Management. Fortune Small Business Magazine, Sept. 4, 2003 Issue.                 Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Essay On Management

This essay critically discusses the question, what is management? It will be based on the critical analysis of the author abo...

BA509 Theories of Leadership

BA509 Theories of Leadership Week 8 DQ 1. Speak to the most creative person you know in any field, and find out if he or she uses any specific creativity-enhancing technique. Please provide the name of the person, the organization and the position that person holds. Miss Fashion Designer for Ladies’ Wear Seattle Pacific Industries According to Miss , a manager showing the quality of dynamism and creativity with new and innovative ideas, analyzing calculated risks, undertaking and implementing them to maximize the returns on investments & profits, as well as enabling the organization in gaining majority in the market share are said to be professional. Professional managers follow the management principles and practices based on information and experience. Managers are said to be professional when they apply the theories of management to solve the emerging problems in the organization. That is why she employs creativity-enhancing techniques, not only upon herself, but upon others as well, especially in her line of job. Being a fashion designer entails being creative, not only in the clothes you make but also on the type of management that you impose upon the workers. According to her, management is an art in the sense that within these confines and structures there are great scopes for the use of creativity, imagination, initiative and invention within the overall sphere of the occupation. The scientific methods and body of knowledge referred to must be applied in their own way to each and any given situation, issue or problem. This is the creative aspect of the manager’s role and function; and anyone in a managerial position who seeks for prescriptive solutions to organizational problems is likely to fail. Furthermore, in management, creativeness is required. Skills and the techniques describe the art of management.  There are some skills and techniques in which is known to possess art in management.   2 In what way does your present program of study contribute to your ability to solve problems creatively? A very important factor in problem definition is creativity. Creative people are effective problem solvers. They are generally thought of as people who can think of unusual solutions that others cannot. “Seeing a problem in an unusual way”, “seeing a relationship in a situation that other people fail to see”, “ability to define a problem well”, or “the ability to ask the right questions” are considered as necessary traits for creativity (1981;  1959). As  (1975) put it, “it is the creative question to which a creative solution is the response.”  (1959) suggests that redefinition is logically opposite to functional fixedness. Indeed, creativity can be thought of as the negation of all fixations, biases, narrow thinking. Another aspect of this is that creativity is the ability to “challenge assumptions” (1970). Each assumption imposes a limit on the problem space. Hence it is critical to establish their validity in order not to rule out alternative avenues if doing so is not justified.   3 Describe a situation where you employed lateral thinking to solve a challenging issue.             I was once presented with a challenging issue wherein I had to manage a certain group of people who are, more or less, different. I had to organize them in a way that they would get along so that they would be able to present a song and dance number to the local geriatric association. They really could not get along because they were multiracial children of around 4 or 3. Then I thought of an idea wherein they could get along and present a song and dance number. I divided them into subgroups, 5 groups, with two persons per group. I made sure I assigned the kids to the one person they really did not get along well with. I told them to practice the song and dance together for a week and after each practice, I would spend time with each group for a “knowing you, knowing me” session. To everybody’s surprise, they got along just fine because they found out they had lots of things in common. After that, they were able to present and everybody was pleased.   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

BA509 Theories of Leadership

BA509 Theories of Leadership Week 8 DQ 1. Speak to the most creative person you know in any field, and find out if he or she uses any s...

Clearly outline the aims and objectives of the business, indicate what the unique selling point of the enterprise is and the legal form (company or partnership)

The company is positioned to be a worldwide human resources (HR) consultancy and outsourcing firm.  Headquartered in the UK, the firm will exploit the cost efficiency of e-commerce to do its business.  It aims to serve large companies who have enormous number of workforce that make internal management a critical issue.  Also, the firm intends to help multinational companies that found difficulty integrating HR management while maintaining efficiency.  Finally, companies facing compensation and benefit controversies are also targeted by the firm’s services.  With its helping hand, clients are assured of their HR needs that will make them focus to central business aspects.    The specific services of the firm include the following; namely, retirement program management, health plan execution, reward system development, reduction programs in HR costs and processing of HR-related transactions.  The goal of the company is to provide a distinct source of HR solutions which would entail clients to prioritize their bottom-line.  There are several dimensions that clients will do business with company.  The firm provides an integrated and in-depth HR services that cover HR issues in recruitment, payroll, benefits and training.  Although a new player in the industry, the company has an experienced staff and its management team came from various industries such as pharmaceutical, automobile, mining, financial services and information technology.    The form of the business is a public corporation.  This will enable its capital structure to have a balance spread of debt and equity financing.  The most notable event in the inception of the firm is the initial public offering.  This stage will serve as focal point where the company will not only raise significant amount of capital for its start-up but also will have the support of the investors in its future growth.  This is a risky engagement since the firm has minimal performance and financial records that the market will analyze.  However, the booming economies particularly in the developing countries renewed the vigor of multinational companies to infiltrate these zones.  Also, employment rates are improving which triggers the need for HR agencies. These events will motivate investors to place their money to the new firm.                     Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Clearly outline the aims and objectives of the business, indicate what the unique selling point of the enterprise is and the legal form (company or partnership)

The company is positioned to be a worldwide human resources (HR) consultancy and outsourcing firm. Headquartered in the UK, the fi...

Management Theory

Management Theory                         With regards to Charles Perrow’s framework, there should be a concrete evaluation of the process concerning task variety and analyzability. Basically, Task variety conforms to the frequency of unanticipated events that occur in adaptation process.  On the other hand, task analyzability deals with the process that can be reduced to mechanical steps or specified with a computational procedure.  With this regard, this paper will suggests processes to be used in an architectural firm that specializes in designing houses in order to satisfy the preferences of individual customers.             From different modes of technology used in designing houses, the firm needs to consider the engineering production scheme.  Actually, both task variability and task analyzability are high in this category (Meredith, J. and Mantel, S.J. 1995).  As we can see all the process is high, meaning to say we are aiming at the high quality to satisfy the clients.  Using high type of process signify advancement in the process which creates ease to the clients that houses built by this firm is in high condition and quality.  Basically, the technology used in this process also includes, surveying, engineering design and drafting, landscape architecture, project bidding, and contract award.             With regards to the structure, it also suggested to use the organic structure than mechanistic.  If we consider the organic process, let say in labor process, we can see than in organic structure the employees work together and coordinate tasks.  Unlike in mechanistic, the employees or the workers are working separately and only specialized in one task. In this case, team work is essential in organic structure.   Moreover, task forces and teams are primary integrating mechanisms.  There is also decentralization in which the authority to control tasks is entrusted (Meredith, J. and Mantel, S.J. 1995).   Compared to mechanistic structure, the guidelines are only based on the stated regulation while in organic, the guidelines and coordination to be followed is based on face-to-face contact. The structure also in organic involves so much verbal communication and informal status based on perceived brilliance. In organic structure, the organization is actually a network of persons or teams in which the people work in different capabilities concurrently and over time (Meredith, J. and Mantel, S.J. 1995).   Reference: Meredith, J. and Mantel, S.J. (1995). Project management: A managerial. Approach. John Wiley & Sons: New York.   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Management Theory

Management Theory With regards to Charles Perrow’s framework, there should be a concrete evaluation of the ...

In recent years Bureaucracy as an organisational form has received much criticism.

a.    Discuss Bureaucracy in light of the above comments, and compare it to one other organisational form with which you are familiar. (50 marks) The concept of the management theory has been around for ages. Organisations, new and old, rely on the principles of management to get the job done in an efficient and effective manner. Throughout the years numerous types of management theories have been infused in the business policies and consequently with the operations of the organisation. The existing literature on such practices indicates the presence of two general types of management theories: classical and neoclassical theories. The classical theories of management point to the early management theories which rely mainly on the structure of the organisation. On the other hand, neoclassical theories are the ones which initiate means on which other items directly and indirectly affecting the organisation are considered. In this paper, the discussions shall focus on a classical theory of management: bureaucracy. Being a rather dated model of management, bureaucracy has been acquiring a whole lot of flak from management scholars. With the advent of more recent and more comprehensive models of management, the hostility towards the model of bureaucracy is not surprising. However, there are certain companies that still employ this management model despite these numerous disparagement. One of the forerunners of scientific management, bureaucratic management is associated with the renowned scholars synonymous with the model is Max Weber. (Miner 2002, 27) Though there were other noted scholars like Karl Marx that espoused the model, Weber’s take on the theory is the one preferred and currently used by organisations as a means to implement management operations. The core of bureaucracy is geared towards the elimination of inefficiency and establishment of stability in the organisation. (Miner 2002, 27) This is achieved by a strict enforcement of law, high regard on hierarchy, and centralisation of the decision making processes in the organisation. As seen in the previous description of the model, there are certain flaws in its nature. Thus, it is inevitable that the model gains considerable criticisms from other management scholars. One of the prevailing criticisms on the theory of bureaucracy as a management model is the fact that it is outdated. Though the model did emerge several decades ago, it doesn’t necessarily mean that the thrust of the model is entirely obsolete. Studies have pointed out that certain basic principles of bureaucracy are still relevant in the modern society. For instance, companies still accepts the functional division of labour is still at play in most, if not all, organisations. (Gaynor 1998, 31) The modern organisation is based on that basic principle’s intent toward efficiency of operations. In the same manner, the existence of a hierarchy of authority in an organisation is still indispensable.  (Miner 2002, 60) A company would be impeccably lost without clear distinct lines of authority and prescribed duties of leadership. Moreover, Weber’s theory of bureaucracy also entails that the employees working to achieve the ends of the organisation possess certain rights. (Gaynor 1998, 41) This means that an organisation implementing bureaucratic theories in its management practice inevitably has to operate within a specific line on which the rights and privileges of the employees are not infringed. There have also been reports indicating that the theory of bureaucracy should be done away with and totally replaced by a new management model. As seen in the definitions provided by the existing literature, there are flaws in the bureaucratic model that a number of organisations may find destructive. For instance, today’s management style appears to be gearing towards a more customer-centric approach. (Johnson and Gustafsson 2000) This idea is alien to the principles of bureaucracy as a management theory. For companies who implement the bureaucratic model, the element of impartiality is present; hence mobility is based on performance and merit. (Miner 2002, 87)  Unfortunately, such attribute also entails that the company be impersonal to the human aspect of the organisation. The model has become too engrossed in instilling efficiency and maintaining stability that the company tends to treat people internal and external of the organisation as mere automatons, as means to the ends of the organisation. Figure 1. Matrix Structure of P&G These two observations on the traditional bureaucratic structure of the organisation are manifested in the global monolith Procter & Gamble. In this retail giant, the structure at first glance provides an image of a bureaucratic structure. However, a closer consideration of the “pillars” of their structure manifest that they employ a matrix organisational structure. (PG. com 2008)   b.    Examine the strengths and weaknesses of Bureaucracy as an organisational form. Your answer should draw on specific industry examples and should refer to he conditions and circumstances when it is likely to be more appropriate (50 marks) There are certain companies that come to mind when one speaks of the bureaucratic model, one of these is Nokia. The following figure presents the matrix structure of Nokia as a multinational company taken from the website of the company. Figure 2. Bureaucratic Structure of Nokia Seeing the image above, it appears that Nokia have acquired certain principles of the bureaucratic model. However, this does not manifest a clear adherence to the classical theory of Weber. Instead this shows a close comparison on the bureaucratic model according to the theory of Ford. The matrix shows that there is some form of standardisation involved. (Guillen 1997, 682) In the same regard, there is also a considerable manifestation seeking to augment in the volume of production as specific elements of the company concentrates on a particular niche in the market. (Freeman and Louca 2002, 85) With the existence of this division of labour, one could anticipate the similar existence of the consequent intense supervision. (Barley 1996, 404) All of these are clear and present manifestation of Nokia’s implementation of the bureaucratic model in their operations. In the end, Nokia is still at the running for the world’s top mobile company. Seen above, the desire of the company to implement the bureaucratic model is based on the desire to stabilise the internal environment of the organisation without compromising the quality of the performance. With the adherence to the strict rules of the company, professional mobility and professional development is ensured to the employees. (Frankel 1997, 62) In the same manner, the company is ensured that it will impeccably carry the organisation towards its ultimate goals. Like any other organisational model, the bureaucratic theory also has some weak points. The discussions earlier indicated that the human element, both internally and externally, is treated impersonally. In return, the company is treated the same way by the employees. This means that there is no deep-rooted desire on each and every personnel to do their part in achieving the goals of the company. Other claims that the use of a rigid system would trigger red tape. This ultimately defeats the purpose of imposing a system in the first place.  All in all, if a company which doesn’t have the environment that will complement the bureaucratic theory essentially signed a death wish if it uses it nonetheless. A good example would be the case of Procter and Gamble. Studies on the said company maintained that it has a slow process of innovation. (Madapati 2003) The creation of new brands and other market expansion initiatives has been considerably sluggish such that it has been significantly been left behind by its closest competitors in the retail industry. (Murshed 2002, 6) This slow development on the part of the company tends to limit what Blumentritt and Danis (2006, 274) coined as bureaucratic inertia. The concept basically indicates the incapability of the company to trigger developments based on certain undertakings. The company dealt with this problem not by eliminating the implementation of the bureaucratic model in their operations. In its place, they opted to highly differentiate their products in the market to ensure increased performance. (Agres and Dubitsky 1996, 21) In this case, abandoning the tried and tested principles of the bureaucratic model was out of the question. In its place, the management did their jobs that formulated on their discretion a way for their products to complement the existing system. Though their standing in the market is still unstable, this is not because of their business policies to implement bureaucracy. It is because of the intensity of the competition in the international retail market.  The case of bureaucracy as a management theory has given organisations, old and new, a great formula in their operations. As seen in the discussions above, the theory is far from perfect. Some even states that it is already and obsolete theory. However, this paper contends that the bureaucratic model is still applicable but not to all organisations. The existence of other forms of management theories tends to adopt certain principles of the bureaucratic model that works for a particular set of circumstances. Though much criticism is being thrown towards the model, a lot of big firms have ignored it and continued to operate using the bureaucratic model. Admittedly, these companies do not adhere strictly to the ideal type of bureaucracy as stated in the model of Weber. Like any diligent entity of business, companies have learned to be flexible and adjusted certain elements of the theory’s shortcomings to a minimum and maximised the advantages it offered. The discussions above show that the management model provided by Weber could be limited to a particular part of the operations. For instance, the discussions above maintained that in the manufacturing areas of the companies like Nokia, a strict adherence to the bureaucratic method is apparent. All in all, the criticisms towards the theory of bureaucracy should be seen not so as to disparage those who espouse it and implement it in their organisation. It is meant to provide an impetus towards the development of these tried and tested principles put forward by the classical theory of bureaucracy. References Agres, S., and Dubitsky, T., (1996) “Changing Needs for Brands.” Journal of Advertising Research. 36(1), 21. Barley, S. (1996) “Technicians in the Workplace: Ethnographic Evidence for Bringing Work into Organization Studies.” Administrative Science Quarterly. 41(3), 404. Blumentritt, T., and Danis, W., (2006) “Business Strategy Types and Innovative Practices.” Journal of Managerial Issues. 18(2), 274. Frankel, B. (1997) “Confronting Neoliberal Regimes: The Post-Marxist Embrace of Populism and Realpolitik.” New Left Review. A(226), 62. Freeman, C. and Louca, F. (2002) As Time Goes by: From the Industrial Revolutions to the Information Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press.. Gaynor, A. (1998) Analyzing Problems in Schools and School Systems: A Theoretical Approach. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Guillen, M. (1997) “Scientific Management’s Lost Aesthetic: Architecture, Organization, and the Taylorized Beauty of the Mechanical.” Administrative Science Quarterly. 42(4), 682. Madapati, R. (2003) Procter & Gamble : Organization 2005 and Beyond. Available in: http://www.icmr.icfai.org/casestudies/procter1.html [Accessed 2 October, 2008] Miner, J. (2002) Organizational Behavior: Foundations, Theories, and Analyses. New York: Oxford University Press. Murshed, S. (2002) Globalization, Marginalization and Development. London: Routledge. Procter & Gamble (2008) “Corporate Structure.” Available in: http://www.pg.com/jobs/corporate_structure/how_the_structure.shtml [02 November 2008] Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

In recent years Bureaucracy as an organisational form has received much criticism.

a. Discuss Bureaucracy in light of the above comments, and compare it to one other organisational form with which you are familiar. (5...

Different theories of cross-cultural management

Cross-Cultural Analysis   Introduction               Accordingly, significant rapid changes are continuously happening in the international market.  With these changes, the only way for the organizations to adapt and adjust is to consider management models and approaches different from the traditional practices.  Specified affective aspects such as increasing global competition as well as rapid technological change urged most companies to become more inclined with global operations and to managers to be transferred to manage employees with diverse cultures (Aaker, 2001). It can be said that culture is an essential aspects in comprehending a company, because in order for the company to operate efficiently, the must for some extent have a general set of assumptions, norms and belief.  Because understanding the context of culture is said to help organisations to be aware of how employees perceived about the company and to determine how different attitudes, beliefs, and values affect the workplaces and implicate the work of the manager (Bennett, Aston & Colquhoun, 2000).  Comprehending and assessing the national culture and organizational culture can mean the difference between the success and failure of a manager in handling diverse employees.  It can be said that cultural differences posts some of the issue and opportunities for a manager, specifically Hong Kong manager. Primarily, the main goal of this paper is to understand different theories of cross-cultural management. In addition, this paper will also discuss how this cross-cultural diversity affects Hong Kong managers. Cross-Cultural Management Theories             Aforementioned, one of the elements which must be given attention by the management of the company is the cultural aspects, specifically if the company or the manager is managing different or diverse cultures. There are various cross-cultural management theories that have been provided by different theorists. In this paper, the cross-cultural management theories that will be analysed include that of Edward T. Hall and Mildred Hall, and Geert Hofstede and Fons Trompenaars.             It was stated by Hall and Hall (1973) that the most essential factors for having a successful cross-cultural management system is to consider an efficient cultural communication. Herein, the management or the manager of the company must make it sure that there are open avenues for people to communicate efficiently.  Hall & Hall (1976) has been able to identify two categories of culture which have an impact on business operations and organizational performances. Such categories include the High Context Culture and the low context culture. High Context categories are regarded to have a very high established homogenous view in terms of religious values, nationality and beliefs and attitudes (Hall & Hall, 1976). This form of culture can be easily recognized among Arab countries and Japanese style of management. In this regard, the communication aspects are given consideration such as gestures and body language.        On one hand, the low context culture notes that the concept of communication is more identified in formal written records like what can be seen in the United Kingdom and United States. The next theorist and cultural theory that will be considered is that of the cross-cultural management theory of Geert Hofstede. According to this theory, culture can be classified through different dimensions at a national level (Hofstede, 1991). Such dimensions include power distance, masculinity-femininity, individual collectivism, long-term versus short-term orientation and uncertainty avoidance. Ø  Large versus small power distance. it is noted that the large power distance is the extent to which the employees or staffs or the members of the society admits that power in organisations and companies is distributed unequally; while small power distance is the notion in which  members of a society or employees or staffs accept that power is distributed fairly (Hofstede, 1991). Ø  Strong versus weak uncertainty avoidance. This aspect means that strong uncertainty avoidance addresses that the degree to which the employees feel uncomfortable with ambiguity and uncertainty, which leads them to support beliefs that promises certainty and to sustain institutions protecting conformity; while the weak uncertainty avoidance is the level in which employees tend to be relatively tolerant of uncertainty and ambiguity and needs autonomy and lower structure (Hofstede, 1991; Rodriguez, 1995). Ø  Individualism versus collectivism. The individualism aspect is known to be the preference for a loosely knit social model in society; whereas collectivism referred to a preference for a tightly knit social model.   Ø  Masculinity versus femininity. The context of masculinity refers to the preference for fulfillment, heroism, fierceness, forcefulness, and material success; whereas the notion of femininity referred to a preference for modesty, relationships, nurturing and caring for the weak and the quality of life. It can be said that such cultural dimensions can assist the manager’s approach to managing diverse culture (Hofstede, 1980). In addition, this can also help management strategies easier to be implemented (Hofstede, 1980). The next theory to be considered for analysing cross-cultural management is the theory established or formulated by Fons Trompenaars. As noted by Trompenaars (1997), there are seven dimensions of culture which is relevant to the relationships with employees or personnels in an organization. These seven dimensions are Individualism vs. Collectivism (communitarians), Universalism vs. Particularism, Specific vs. Diffuse, Neutral vs. Emotional, Linear vs. Circular and internal vs. external control and Achievement vs. Ascription, Such dimensions are attributed as the factors which can be useful for managing cultural diversities.   Implications to Hong Kong Manager As Burack, et al (1994) pointed out, management; specifically managers had transformed it as more emphasis is stressed on commitment and control. Quality, competence, and flexibility among the employees had efficiently replaced quantity of task accomplished and dumb obedience. Furthermore, the objectives of the management become concentrated on the adoption of modernization, quality and cost reduction. As management, specifically managers requires and demands more from their employees, work is then intensified resulting to less slacking of the management. Aside from globalization, changes in the role of the managers have occurred due to cross-national dissimilarities. The diversities among nations are likely to develop practices that are different from other countries (Gooderham, Nordhaug & Ringdal, 1999). In reality, management’ practices are subject to distinctive sets of national rules as well as sensitive analysis of labor unions whose strength and thoughts towards management differ. Thus, this concept is contrary to the idea of HRM as a high managerial autonomy (Fisher, Schoenfeldt & Shaw, 1993; Dessler, 1997). Based on the analysis of different theories provides above, it can be said that cultural diversities or differences can have a direct impact or implications on specific manager. For example, Hong Kong managers who are assigned with culturally diverse employees should ensure that they are able to adhere to the needs of the employees to be managers. Cultural differences among nations are interestingly predominant due to varying backgrounds, origins, traditions, and lifestyles. As culture influences much of people’s way of life, their principles, ideas, beliefs and personal character suggest their cultural background. Oftentimes cultural differences have been a subject of conflict among individuals and aspects which should be given emphasis by Hong Kong managers, in a culturally diverse organisation. Thus, open-mindedness and respect for each others diversity are necessary. For instance, Hong Kong managers who are assigned in a United States company should be able to have the ability to take responsibilities of the cultural differences. One distinct characteristic among Hong Kong managers is their tendency to do things in a hurry. In their managerial processes, the environment appears to be filled with pressure and urgency. Thus, most perceived Hong Kong managers as efficient thinkers and workers especially when placed under stress. Americans on the other hand usually take their time especially in making management decisions. Thomas (2002) also pointed out the difference of these two cultures when it comes to leadership and authority. Westerners for instance, tend to be straightforward and focused on their tasks. Alternatively, Hong Kong managers are more concerned on the delegation of various tasks. As Chinese/ Hong Kong culture gives value to organizational hierarchy, Chinese bosses tend to be all-powerful. In turn, subordinates will just have to wait for their bosses’ instructions. This heavy dependence on bosses and less resourcefulness may seem to be an attitude perceived by Westerners as staying away from responsibility.        In terms of cultural orientation, it can be said that the United States is a highly masculine-oriented and individualistic country. Herein, their managers emphasise on individual action and self-interest. On one hand Hong Kong is also a masculine-oriented culture because of the influences of Western culture in the nation. In terms of relationship among people, it can be said that the US culture are less relationship-oriented. Employee relationships on American leaders are directed to maximum achievement of goals and disregard personal attributes of employees. For American leaders, results should benefit the whole organisation while Hong Kong culture leaders, results should benefit both the organisation and the individual. Hong Kong culture is more are more relationship-oriented as they show outstanding concern on personal lives of their staff members. Trust is extremely dominant among Hong Kong leaders. Since relationship is governed by respect, guidance, and consultation, Hong Kong management value equality and group harmony. Relationships in Hong Kong business play a significant role. The Hong Kong managers create business relations in a different manner as compared to their western counterparts. This is mainly because, mutual relations, gift-exchanging and doing favours are considered important elements that strengthen Chinese business relations; this is unlike the Western environment where business relations are not exactly based on emotions and friendships. Furthermore, the Hong Kong has a strong affiliation towards social responsibilities. Thus, it is important for the firm to do social provisions not only to the employees but to the community as well. This example then stresses the need for foreign investors to be aware of various cultural differences.             The managers of Hong Kong should consider these cultural and national differences if they want to have a successful career in the US market. In addition, cultural differences affect how the manager will manage the American employees considering that the two have very diverse or different cultures.   Recommendation   Consequently, culture is something that is hard to customize and change. Thus, rather than cause conflict about cultural differences, it is probably wise to accept and respect them. Instead of identifying this issue as a problem, cultural differences should be learned and appreciated, specifically by the managers who are assigned to work in a diverse culture. This is because a nation’s cultural difference is what makes it special, unique, and distinct.             If the Hong Kong managers will be assigned with a United State’s or American’s company, the Hong Kong manager must see to it that they are able to sustain their cultural aspect which makes them unique from each other. Understanding the culture of Americans, enable the managers to know which leadership styles to be used when assigned to US companies. It can be noted that that the process of becoming an effective international manager is to sustain the growth and maintain the relationships of people within the company despite their individual differences. In this regard, the managers who will work on American company should set a common vision and goal and allow their staffs to effectively accomplish their tasks, both in individual and collective level to comply with the cultural situation of each nation. The cultural dimension is noted to be more strategic and intangible in nature than the technical one. Cultural factors explain the notion regarding the importance of the organisational and individual culture. This dimension, involves myths, rituals, games and symbols which are relevant to how the company strategise their operations. Because of the common behaviour, an internal incorporation within the company is enhanced. In this sense, all cultural learning indicates the original values of each staff and their sense of what ought to be as different and unique from what is.   Conclusion             Throughout the years, different theorists had been able to recognize and identify the significant role of culture in management.  The interest for these business aspects had been reviewed in various manners.  Among the helpful theories about national culture and cultural dimensions are those of Hall, Hofstede, and Trompenaars. The interests of the study of culture have been raised because of the constant evolution of such priorities that presently emphasize on work motivation as well as intellectual development of different employees.             Under theoretical aspects, theorists have been able to illustrate the significant role of the managers and employees on the development of an effective organizational culture. In this regard, the leadership skills of the manager, in this case, Hong Kong managers, and the insights of the employees should have an equal weight in line with cultural dynamics.             By and large, it can be said that in order for the Hong Kong managers to manage employees in American setting, the manager should be able to know the employees behaviour and know which cultural management approach to be used.   Reference Aaker, D. A. (2001). Strategic market management. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Bennett, R., Aston, A., and Colquhoun, (2000), “Cross-cultural training: A critical step in ensuring the success of international assignments,” Human Resource Management, 39 (2-3): 239-250   Hofstede, G 1980, Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values, Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.   Thomas, M. (2002). Chinese and Western Approaches to management. Available at: http://www.mce.be (Accessed: October 7, 2004).   Aaker, D. A. (2001). Strategic market management. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.   Ahls, B. (2001, July). Organizational Behavior: A Model for Cultural Change. Industrial Management, 6-12.   Barbeschi, M. (2002) Organisational culture of the OPCW Secretariat Disarmament Forum, Vol. 4, United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research, Geneva, pp46-53.   Bennett, R., Aston, A., and Colquhoun, (2000), “Cross-cultural training: A critical step in ensuring the success of international assignments,” Human Resource Management, 39 (2-3): 239-250 Burack, E, Burack, M, Miller, D & Morgan, K 1994, “New Paradigm Approaches in Strategic Human Resource Management,” Groups & Organizational Management, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 141-160. Christensen, E., and Gordon, G. (1999). An Exploration of Industry, Culture, and Revenue Growth. Organization Studies, 20(3), 397-422.   Cohen, R. (1991). Negotiating across cultures: Communication obstacles in international diplomacy. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press.   Denison, D.R. (1990). Corporate Culture and Organizational Effectiveness. New York: John Wiley & Sons.   Denison, D.R., and Mishra, A.K. (1995). Toward a theory of organizational culture and effectiveness. Organization Science, 6, 204-223. Dessler, G 1997, Human Resource Management, 7th ed, Upper Saddle River, N J: Prentice-Hall. Fisher, C, Schoenfeldt, LE & Shaw, JB 1993, Human Resource Management, Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Gooderham, PN, Nordhaug, O & Ringdal, K 1999, “Institutional and Rational Determinants of Organizational Practices: Human Resource Management in European Firms”, Administrative Science Quarterly, vol. 44, no. 3, p. 507.  Gordon, G.G. (1985). The relationship of corporate culture to industry sector and corporate performance. In: R.H. Kilmann, et al (Eds.), Gaining control of the corporate culture (pp. 103-125). San Francisco: Jossey-B   Gordon, G.G., and DiTomaso, N. (1992). Predicting corporate performance from organizational culture. Journal of Management Studies, 29, 783-798. Hall, T.E. (1979).  Beyond Culture. New York: Anchor Press. Hall, E. T. (1983). Dance of Life. New York: Doubleday. Hofstede, G 1980, Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values, Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.   Hofstede, G 2001, Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations across Nations, 2nd edition, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.   Kluckholn, F., & Strodtbeck, F. (1961). Variations in value orientation.  Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.   Schwartz, S. H.  (1994). Beyond individualism/collectivism: New cultural dimensions of values. In K. Uichol, H. C. Triandis and H. S. Hakhoe, editors, Individualism and collectivism: Theory, methods, and applications. Thousand. Oaks, CA: Sage, pp. 85-119.   Kotter, J.P., and Heskett, J.L. (1992). Corporate culture and performance. New York: The Free Press.   Taylor, J.C., and Bowers, D. (1972). Survey of organizations. Ann Arbor: Institute for Social Research.   Thomas, M. (2002). Chinese and Western Approaches to management. Available at: http://www.mce.be (Accessed: October 7, 2004).   Trompenaars, F 1993, Riding the waves of culture. Nicholas Brealy, London.   Usunier, J. C. 1996. Cultural aspects of international business negotiations. In P. N. Ghauri & J. C. Usunier, editors. International business negotiations. Tarrytown, NY: Pergamon, pp. 93-118.   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Different theories of cross-cultural management

Cross-Cultural Analysis Introduction Accordingly, significant rapid changes are continuously happening in the internat...

Impact of New Wave Theory upon Managerialism

Impact of New Wave Theory upon Managerialism                   According to Pollitt (1993) managerialism is defined as a set of beliefs and practices, at the central aspect of which burns the seldom-tested assumption that better management will be establish as an efficient solvent for a wide range of economic and social ills. On the other hand, according to Quigguin (2003) managerialism is the belief that organizations have more similarities than differences; therefore, the performance of all organization can be improved by applying generic management skills and theory. For the practitioner of managerilism, there is a small difference in the required skills in order to run a college, an advertising agency or even an oil rig. On the other hand, the experience and skills that are relevant and applicable to the core business of the organization are considered as secondary factors (Quiggin, 2003).                 As a result, managerialism is an ideology that is being applied in both social and political issues even though it is a business management principle. It tends to focus on the effectiveness, financial management as well as decentralized governance, arguing that the equity and satisfaction of social needs can be achieved when these aspects are prioritized. Managerialism focuses on two vital factors: first is the principle of professionalism, technocratic rationality, efficiency as well as impartiality that are assumed to be aspects of the public sector management practice; and second is the idea about the perspective of the choice of the public and privatization (NQF, n.d.).       References   NQF. What is managerialism? Retrieved 12 November 2010, from NQF website.   Pollitt, C. (1993). Managerialism and the public services. 2nd edn. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.   Quiggin, J. (2003, July 02). Word for Wednesday: managerial (definition). Retrieved 12 November 2010, from JohnQuiggin website.   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Impact of New Wave Theory upon Managerialism

Impact of New Wave Theory upon Managerialism According to Pollitt (1993) managerialism is defined as a set of belief...

How critical and postmodern ideas change and influence managers’ behaviors within the work environment

Critical and postmodern theories   How would critical and postmodern ideas change the way a manager behaved in their work environment?   Introduction               Effective management is critical for the functioning, existence and survival of every modern organization. In dealing with various workforce and employment issues, contemporary managers should be equipped with the necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes. Postmodernism [and critical theory], on the other hand, moves along with the development of culture, society and economy. Economic postmodernism, specifically, manifests that organizations function in the context of organizational upsizing, rapid implementation of communication and information technologies, globalization, changing nature of work, reduction of working class and less salient class conflicts, professionalisation of the work force, stagnant economies, widespread ecological problems and turbulent markets all contribute to the changing dynamics of modern management.  Postmodern managers therefore are being challenged by corporate culture, quality management and subjectivities of employees among others. The renewed call for leadership, soul and charisma also surrounds the basis of control for postmodern managers.   In this paper, how critical and postmodern ideas change and influence managers’ behaviors within the work environment will be discussed. The five managerial mindsets as it relates to critical and postmodernism and the four principles of critical and postmodernism as it relates to managerial behaviors will be addressed likewise.   How critical and postmodern ideas influence the managerial mindsets             Further, the critical and postmodern ideas conform to five managerial mindsets, aiming at acquiring ability to transform people, organizations, systems and contexts. Leadership mindsets which are also applicable for managers include reflective, analytic, worldly, collaborative and catalytic mindsets. For managers to be effective, to gain a better understanding of the personal management style is critical hence the reflective mindset. This was perceived as an effort to broaden perspectives which considers how managers should present themselves to others, their strengths and weaknesses and the present management skills and capabilities. Critical postmodernism relates that with autonomy, managers can perfect skills. When assessing the intrinsic similarities and differences, managers of today are required to gain vital knowledge on how own organization performs in comparison with other organization as part of the analytic mindset. These are evidenced by systematic applications of strategies, structures, sourcing and delivery. An aspect of critical postmodernism when dealing with this is the diffusion of traditional organizational boundaries (Mintzberg, 2004, pp. 368-370; Boje and Dennehy, 2008).   Moreover, the worldly mindset guides the managers in navigating systems. It is the evaluation of the position of managers towards complex systems which integrates economic, political and social forces. Knowledge and skills are applied to increase understanding of the dynamics of ‘systems change’ and to encourage managers to make creative solutions. Critical postmodernism lays claim that spatial and temporal diffusion of information to loose and flexible network of semi-autonomous work teams will influence the development of managerial mindset and hence behaviors (Allen, 1999). The appreciation of working relationships is the focus of collaborative mindset. This mindset is measure on the basis of responding to challenges of relationship building, negotiating, coordination and knowledge management. Finally, the catalytic mindset purports the efforts to achieve change. This mindset is action-focused and integrative, meaning a transition from theory to action (Mintzberg, 2004, pp. 368-370). In this way, less powerful groups will emancipate from its oppressive core, contributing to the flexibility of the organization and the managers’ role.     How principles of critical and postmodern ideas influence managerial behaviors The development of critical and postmodernism points out that people, realities and social relations together become nonessential constructions. Hence, these are constructed under specific conditions of power and contestation. The irony, however, is that social constructions are filled with opacities, contradictions and conflict suppression (Clegg, Hardy and Nord, 1996, p. 193). Critical and postmodern ideas draw upon four overarching yet conflicting principles. The first is the power and knowledge relation arising with Nietzsche’s perspectivalism. Perspectivism suggests that there are several possible conceptual schemas or perspectives which may determine any possible judgment of truth or value that we may make (Clark, 1990). In lieu with this, organizations strive onto the direction to be learning organizations. Senge (1990) defines a learning organization as “where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually learning to learn together.”               Boje and Dennehy (2008, p. 29) contend that the postmodern form is falter, more diverse, more flexible, more automated, more dispersed and focuses on narrower niches in the market place. Since the form is different, the skill set for managers will also be different. It is in this sense that competitiveness and efficiency of managers is becoming more apparent. As organizations embrace the sharing of basic knowledge hence the growing interdependence, managers are required to maximize their knowledge capacities in the workplace. There are three basic competencies that managers should acquire delivering positive outcomes, fostering partnerships and fair and evidenced management. In the first competency, managers are expected to be business thinkers where they understand the organization’s purpose, context, goals, objectives and the relevance of the role. Further, managers are required to have passion for results hence should understand what needs to be done and stretching themselves to deliver results effectively(Miller, Rankin and Neathy, 2001).   Because organizations are becoming diverse as ever, managers are assumed to foster relationships in terms of effectively managing such, being a team player and learning and improving in accordance to the requirements of the organization. A plausible example is that the increased in women’s participation in the workplace. The old adage that women are vulnerable to changes such as political climate, competitive pressures, technological issues, regulations and practices and harmonization and globalization paves the way of women’s employment, but is no longer the case (Deresky, 2005). A manager should be geared towards collaborating effectively across the organization and with external stakeholders; cooperating and supporting subordinates to produce better results and developing self, helping others to excel at what they do and values individuals. Lastly, managers are also expected to perform through clear communication, analytical rigor and objective judgment and decision-making. Sharing information, experience and ideas to ensure understanding, using analysis to find solutions and making sound and timely decisions that are evidence based, respectively, are just three aspects where development of managerial behaviors should be inclined into (Miller, Rankin and Neathy, 2001).               The second principle is a nondualistic constructionist account of experience and language which situates all perspective within specific social/historical/linguistic contexts. This means that the intersubjectivity preceding any subjectivity or objectivity is structured in specific ways. In simpler terms, subjectivity means personal interpretation or vision while objectivity refers to the fact or quality of being accurate or the actual existence. Managerial objectivity requires that managers should align performance at individual level with organizational performance. For instance, it is the manager’s duty to delegate tasks and subordinates are responsible for the actual execution of the delegated tasks. In addition to this, postmodern organizations listen to the voice of not just the internal stakeholders but also the suppliers, customers, workers and communities, all of which contribute to the actions performed and strategies implemented by managers in the workplace (Boje and Dennehy, p. 82).   Nevertheless, it is also significant for managers to unite individual schemes with organizational opportunities. Of subjective importance to managers are acquiring skills in managing their own careers, greater retention of valued employees, increased understanding of the organization, and enhanced reputations as people-developers. As such, critical postmodernism affects managerial behaviors through emphasizing the necessity of individualism. The purpose of these activities is to enhance performance through the acquisition of increased knowledge, skills, competencies, and/ or improved behavior (Eggland and Gilley 1998, p. 16). Radical critical postmodern prescriptions, as Boje and Dennehy (2008) put it, claim that people need to be more career-centered than organization-centered in lieu with increased mobility requirements (p. 101).               Third builds upon the principle of social conflict which means positioning social/historical/linguistic perspectives within materially produced social divisions. Organisational structures, for instance, provides an overview of the position and function that managers occupy. Responsibility and authority could be diffused in such a way that different functions and/or specialized units are created for the managers. Organisational members climb a ladder of supervision rather than perfect themselves as individuals to better build products, services and lifestyles. According to Boje and Dennehy (2008), managers also function to topple the corporate ladder (p. 101). The managers work through internal structures and systems and funnel effect of the manager’s knowledge, expertise and skills could drive not just the competence of the employees but also the organization’s as a whole that is why it is imperative that managers should understand their role clearly to make subordinates understand their roles. It is clear that managers should be able to forecast future competitive success and translate organizations’ mission and strategies into a comprehensive framework of performance measures based on strategic measurement and management systems despite the differences in role that the organizational structure depicts.               In connection with this, the critical postmodern discourse is that employees are organized into teams where quality of work procedures is the emphasis For postmodern competitive teams, the context relating to focal environment is the market and through a matrix and integrative style of workplace organization (Boje and Dennehy, 2008, pp. 24-27).. In the manager-led team, the manager acts as the team leader. The team members are responsible for the actual execution of the delegated task. The leader in self-managing teams determines the overall purpose or goal of the team. The whole team manages the methods by which they can achieve their goal (Thompson, 2007, p. 9). Evidently, managerial behaviors are shaped on the basis of responsible implementation of assigned work for the managers and the subordinates or team members. Because control is vested on the manager’s hand, the challenge for managers is the sense of ownership of team members considering that they have little autonomy over their works.               A complex human subject is the fourth principle where human is regarded as the complex, conflict-ridden and often mistaken subject in a place of a knowing, unitary, autonomous person. Thereby, the challenge is the simple rationality and the clear and fixed identity. In relation to the ever-changing nature of organizations that must change in internally according to the external changes, managers are increasingly required to contribute and increase organizational effectiveness. Aside from being people developers, managers should initiate changes that meant at motivating others in order to support change. The role of the managers, as change agents, is crucial. Their responsibilities include becoming culturally aware, understanding the organization culture and communicating or conveying consistent messages to the membership at the very least (Poole, 1998). Managers serve as instruments of legitimate compliance wherein they become emblems of effective change mechanisms as well. The managerial meaning of motivation deals with the activity of managers and leaders to induce others in order to produce results desired or outlined by the organization or by the manager.   The managerial concept of motivation conforms to a relationship between motivation, ability and performance. The main purpose of motivating your workplace is to minimize dissatisfaction and to keep people within the organization (Tosi, Mero and Rizzo, 2000, pp. 129-133). The critical postmodern rationale behind motivation is the requirement of postmodern organizations for highly involved workplace. Self-managing teams of empowered employee which participates in productivity quality and more job satisfaction would be plausible, with manager-led teams as the nearest alternative. Within manager-led team, as an example, the weight of responsibility is given to the team manager as he or she is in-charge for defining the goals, methods and functioning of the team. Critical postmodernism also requires the organization around processes rather than functions. What affects managerial behaviors in terms of team- and functions-based processes are the elements of command and control with empowerment, self-management and self-control (Boje and Dennehy, 2008, p. 147).               Boje (2001) asserts that critical postmodernism claims that ethics is worth retaining as well as balancing managerialism with labor and environmental perspectives. One could understand that the application of such is apparent on corporate social responsibility or simply CSR and how managers could contribute in this. CSR is simply defined as “the impact of a business and the relationship between it and society specifically those which are involved or affected by its activities” (Sims, 2003). As such, CSR concerns the social environment and a changed social contract. It has been argued that modern organizations should consider the societal impact of their decisions and actions. Organizations are obliged to protect and improve the welfare of the general public. The organizations must aim not only on organizational effectiveness but on existence to address the needs of society (p. 43). This should be evidenced by set of written and unwritten rules and assumptions in a corporate manner. This is in part of business ethics which that is expected to be integrated at all aspects of the organization. According to Sims (2003), modern organizations are concern with the greater specificity, usefulness and consistency of ethics (pp. 12-13). Ethical behaviors then dealt with morally-acceptable and commonly-held values which are consistent to personal perception of values.               Managers are no strangers to either business ethics or CSR. As a stakeholder, managers should understand what ought to be” and “what ought not to be”, two aspects which should govern ethical decision-making of the managers. Managers often perceive their roles to be the providers of inputs whether productive or not-so-productive experiences. They would present their personal expectations as well as their organizational. When it comes to ethics and social, however, managers are challenged by the ‘teachability’ of business ethics and the ‘learnability’ of the employees in accordance with their personal perception and values regarding business ethics. Grace (2006) relates that business institutions “cannot taught students something as fundamental as moral principles and ethical values as a kind of professional add-ons.” It would be then difficult for managers to impart morality and inculcate virtue to future mangers. Workforce engagement increasingly becomes a challenge since every individual are employing different attitudes and behaviors toward work. Adherence to business ethics and CSR affect the attitude, emotions and behavior of the employees regarding corporate citizenship (Rupp et al, 2006).   Conclusion             On the basis of the managerial mindsets including reflective, analytic, worldly, collaborative and catalytic, critical postmodern ideas suggest that the direction of the development of managerial behaviors are based on the autonomy of the managers, the growing organizational interdependence, the pursuit to be a learning organization and the empowerment of less powerful groups within the organization. Furthermore, managerial behaviors are shaped by the principles of power and knowledge, constructionism, perspectivism and complex human subject, as well as the aspects that encompass these principles.   References Allen, L. R. (1999). The Socio-Spatial Making and Marking of ‘Us’: Toward a Critical Postmodern Spatial Theory of Difference and Community. Social Identities, 5(3):249-277. Boje, D. M. (2001). Toward a Narrative Ethics for Modern and Postmodern Organization Science. Paper rejected by Organization Science. Boje, D. M. and Dennehy, R. F. (2008). Managing in the Postmodern World. IAP. Clark, M. (1990). Nietzsche on Truth and Philosophy. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Clegg, S. Hardy, C. and Nord, W. R. (1996). Handbook of Organization Studies. Sage Publications Inc., London. Deresky, H. (2005). International Management: Managing Across Borders and Cultures. (5th Ed.). Prentice Hall. Eggland, S. (1998). Principles of Human Resource Development. Reading MA: Addison Wesley.Grace, D. (2006). For Business Ethics. Australian Journal of Management, 31. Miller, L., Rankin, N. & Neathy, F. (2001). Competency frameworks in UK organizations: key issues in employer’s use of competencies. London: Minztberg, H. (2004). Managers, not MBAs: a hard look at the soft practice of managing and management development. Berrett-Koehler Publishers. Poole, P. P. (1998) Words and Deeds of Organizational Change. Journal of Managerial Issues, 10(1): 45+. Rupp, D.E., Ganapathi, J., Aguilera R.V. & Williams, C.A. (2006). Employee reactions to corporate social responsibility: an organizational justice framework. Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 27 Copyright – John     Wiley and Sons, Ltd. Sims, R. R. (2003) Ethics and Corporate Social Responsibility: Why Giants Fall. Praeger Publishing House, Westport, Connecticut. Thompson, L. L. (2007). Making the Team: A Guide for Managers. (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. Tosi, H. L., Mero, N. P. & Rizzo, J. R. (2000). Managing Organizational Behavior. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 129-133.     Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

How critical and postmodern ideas change and influence managers’ behaviors within the work environment

Critical and postmodern theories How would critical and postmodern ideas change the way a manager behaved in their work environment?...