Research Articles Base: Hypothesis Sample

Public School Hypothesis Sample

Public School Hypothesis Sample

Hypothesis This study shall test the following null hypothesis: Public Health Schools provide inadequate GIS education for t...

Hypothesis Testing

I. Hypothesis Testing A. given Dual Degree MBA Students Regular MBA Students n1 = 100 n2 = 100 μ1 = 84 μ2 = 87 σ1 = 4.0 σ2 = 5.0 α1 = 0.1  α2 = 0.1   The solution: 1. Ho : μ1 = μ2 2. H1 : μ1 < μ2 3.  α = 0.1 4. Critical region: z < -1. 28 Reject Ho if z > -1.28     Where z =       (n1 – n2)                  √ (σ12 / n1 + σ22/ n2)                 =       (84- 87)                  √ (16 / 100+ 25/100)               z = -3/0.64               z ≈ -3.75 5. Since the value of z < -1.28. Then accept Ho that there is no difference between the dual degree and the regular MBA Students in terms of scores.     II. Regression Analysis a. The scatter diagram for the data is given below: To get the correlation or relationship of the advertising cost ($) and the number of orders, it is important to use the formula for Pearson r correlation which is:                              Using the formula above, the value of r is 0.857 which means that two variables, the price of advertisement and the number of orders are highly correlated or has the strong relationship.   b. Using the least square method, the regression equation can determine: The regression equation will be y = 819,880.05 + 50,526.45x. This means that the advertising cost can be manipulated by substituting the value of the number of orders in y variable so that it can manipulate the value of x which is the price of advertisement.   c. For the definition of the slope in the regression which is 50,526.45. This means that for every of the advertising cost, it is expected that the increase in orders will be 50,526.45 order or approximately 50,526 orders.   d. To get the monthly advertising cost with an orders of 4,999,000 and with the aide of the regression equation. The value of the advertising cost will be: y = 819,880.05 + 50,526.45x 4,999,000 = 819,880.05 + 50,526.45x 4,999,000 – 819,880.05 = 50,526.45x 4,179,119.95 = 50,526.45x   50,526.45        50,526.45 x =.71   e. For this problem, coefficient of variation or r2 is equal to 0.735 or 73.55% of the total variation in number of orders can be explained by the price of the advertisement. f. Standard error of estimate for the given problem is The formula yield for the value of standard error of estimate which is 6.23 it is the error in estimating for the value of prices of advertisement. This also means that the value smaller the value of Sest  is also the more accurate the predictions.       Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Hypothesis Testing

I. Hypothesis Testing A. given Dual Degree MBA Students Regular MBA Students n1 = 100 n2 = 100 μ1 = 84 ...

Business process reengineering

Hypothesis By its nature performance measurement is a diverse subject. Researchers with functional backgrounds as diverse as accounting, operations management, marketing, finance, economics, psychology, and sociology are all actively working in the field. As discussed in the Preface this incredible diversity brings with it both challenges and opportunities. The diversity results in a fascinating richness, but makes it extremely difficult for generations of researchers to build on each other’s work. A significant barrier stems from the fact that traditionally the way academic careers develop is through functional specialization. Accountants talk to accountants. Operations managers meet with operations managers. Marketing specialists network with other marketing specialists. The result is deep and rich streams of functionally specialized research, with little cross-fertilization (2002).   The role of financial performance measurement is to help keep the organization on the financial straight and narrow track. The measures are used primarily by financial specialists, and the action taken as a result of such analysis may also be exclusively financial. Nevertheless, it is also clear that evidence of financial problems may occur because of deficiencies in other areas of business operations. In this case, ratios can provide the finance director with the information necessary to convince other managers that operating action needs to be taken in order to avoid financial distress. However, the primary role served by this type of performance measurement lies within the province of the finance function, and is concerned with the effective and efficient use of financial resources ( 2002).   Firms and non-business organizations alike can no longer afford to avoid bedrock issues of performance measurement. For the last decade, discussion of performance measurement has been dominated by the balanced scorecard.  What is missing from the spin surrounding the balanced scorecard is a simple fact about performance measures, the significance of which is not widely appreciated: common-sense measures used to gauge the performance of a firm are generally uncorrelated. In other words, across a large number of firms or their business units people will find that profitability, market share, customer satisfaction, and operating efficiency are weakly and sometimes negatively correlated (2002). These measures move in different directions about as often as they move in tandem. Social scientists have known this for years and have drawn two conclusions.   First, measuring performance is difficult since it is not clear that performance is a single construct. Second, the choice of performance measures is often arbitrary since it is difficult to prove that any one measure is better than others. Though neither of these conclusions is particularly useful, they would not surprise managers ( 2002). Performance measures can be weakly correlated. Each contains different information about the performance of the firm, and scorecards utilizing multiple measures are needed to capture the performance of the firm completely. In other words, customer satisfaction, operational performance, and innovation must be measured alongside financial results. Unfortunately, the logic lying behind the scorecard approach to performance measurement can go awry when measures are put to use. While there are good reasons to measure multiple dimensions of performance, there are also strong pressures to appraise performance along one dimension: better or worse. These pressures are strongest when compensating and rewarding people’s performance, but they are also present when making investment decisions. Whenever managers ask whether firm A performs better than B, whether division C performs better than D, or, most poignantly, if employee E is a better performer and hence should be compensated more generously than F, G, and H, they are tacitly if not explicitly trying to reduce performance to a single dimension (2002).   Positioning begins with the customer. Customers think about products and companies in relation to other products and companies. What really matters is how existing and potential customers think about a company in relation to its competitors. Customers set up a hierarchy of values, wants, and needs based on empirical data, opinions, word-of-mouth references, and previous experiences with products and services. They use that information to make purchasing decisions. Market leadership can catch a consumer’s attention and can be an important factor for the customer to consider, but there is more than one leader in almost every market segment today. Most often several companies share the top position, one being the technical leader, one the market leader, another pricing leader, and still another challenging upstart. Many companies can establish unique positions in the marketplace for themselves, their products, and their services. This capability is a powerful force in marketing (1991).  Indeed, at the heart of every good marketing strategy is a good positioning strategy. Differentiation, from the customer’s viewpoint, is not something that is product or service related as much as it is related to the way companies does business. In the age of information, it is no longer possible to manufacture an image. The distinction between perception and reality is getting finer. Further, in a world where customers have so many choices they can be fickle. This means modern marketing is a battle for customer loyalty. Positioning must involve more than simple awareness of a hierarchy of brands and company names. It demands a special relationship with the customer and infrastructure of the marketplace. If companies are to develop a marketing style suited to this era of rapid change, they must start with a new approach to positioning (1991).    Based from the Questionnaire the different hypothesis includes 1.    The first hypothesis is the company is continuously and constantly finding out new business processes and procedures to make sure that the best products and services can be produced by the company so that total and a different kind of satisfaction can be given to the company’s clients.   2.    A hypothesis based from the 6th question is that one business process that does not help the company is balanced scorecard. There are many business processes that can help the company provide the best product and service but balanced scorecard is not included in this process.   3.    The balanced scorecard has not created such a big damage for the company not to provide excellent service and good products.   4.    A hypothesis based from the 8th question that can be made is the company is continuously undergoing performance analysis and checkup to see if they are providing the best products and services.   5.     A hypothesis that can be made is that the company is undergoing comparison with competitors and then makes the changes needed to ensure that the rivals will not have competitive advantage.   6.    Lastly a hypothesis that can be made is that through the use of business process re-engineering (BPR) the company will have a more efficient and effective way to provide service to its clients.  The business process engineering will provide the company not only competitive advantage but it will give it advantage over its competitors by providing the best products and services to clients. Research Findings The motivation behind mining data, whether commercial or scientific, is the same the need to find useful information in data to enable better decision making or a better understanding of the world around us. Traditionally, data analysts have turned to data mining techniques when the size of their data has become too large for manual or visual analysis. In the science and engineering domains the size of the data is only one reason why data mining techniques are gaining popularity. Science data in areas such as remote sensing, astronomy, and computer simulations is routinely being measured in terabytes and petabytes. However, what makes the analysis of these data sets challenging is not just the size, but the complexity of the data.   Advances in technology have introduced complexity in scientific data, complexity that can take various forms such as multi-sensor, multi-spectral, multi-resolution data; spatiotemporal data; high dimensional data; structured and unstructured mesh data from simulations; data contaminated with different types of noise; three-dimensional data, and so on (2003).  As a result of this complexity, visual data analysis, given its subjective nature and the human limitations in absorbing details, is becoming impractical even for moderate-sized scientific data sets large to massive data sets visual analysis is practically impossible. As a result, science and engineering data sets provide a very rich environment for the application of data mining, one in which the diversity of problems is matched only by the potential benefits obtained when knowledge is discovered in the data ( 2003).   In any study data is taken from different sources. The most helpful of which is the ideas of the people that is affected by the problem. These ideas can come from surveys or interview that uses questionnaires.  The idea of the people helps in getting the necessary information to solve the problem. The ideas of the people are essential to formulate recommendations for the problem. After getting the ideas of the respondents it is analyzed and given interpretation. This is done to have a deeper understanding of the respondents. This is also done to have a deeper understanding of the feelings of the respondents.  After data collection the next thing to be done is data presentation, interpretation and analysis. It is important that the research output be presented in an organized, coherent and understandable manner so that those who will read the research can propose important decisions about the results of the study. In preparation of the research output the things that should be considered includes the purpose, target reader or target end-user, clarity, appropriate words style, graphic aids (2003).   Target reader / end–user are those who the study wants to reach and attract to read the research. Contents and presentation of the data should be pertinent to the needs of the target reader or end-user. The data should be easily understood and concise for the reader to be attracted to it. The data should be well presented to coincide to the needs of the customer. Clarity is the precision of data. Using words that are specific, measurable, and descriptive will help in illustrating statements and ideas. Logical data organization and a sound interpretation add clarity to a report. In relation to this, n making conclusions and recommendations there should be relative data at hand to make the course of action doable. Appropriate words are words that give more meaning to a statement, appropriate words help to give proper description to the data. Concepts or words with inconsistent meaning should be shunned. Using jargons or languages that are meaningless should be avoided. In making the research, its language should be familiar to the reader or it must be used commonly in day to day business in the field of the reader. Technical terms should be defined since not all readers understand these words.   The study should avoid words which appeal to emotions, being bias, and moral judgment. Style is way the study is presented. The study should have consistency. It should have correct grammar, its spelling should be correct, it should have proper punctuation, and it should compose of short and simple sentences. It should be presented in a manner a reader will be attracted to it. To help enrich the analysis of the data, direct quotation from the answers of the respondents will be beneficial. The discussion can be easier if a section is subdivided into subtopics based on the objectives or hypothesis of the study, to focus on the analysis. Graphical aids are one way to effectively send the message of the study. It can be used as an integral or supplemental part of the text. Graphical aids should be clear and easily understood by the reader. The data should be accurate to prevent miscalculations and misinterpretations. Graphical aids include tables, graphs and charts. Charts can either be a pie chart, vertical bar chart or line bar chart.   In the first question the gender of the respondents was asked. Most of the respondents in the questionnaire were male. The gender of the respondents helps in determining what point of view the study will be based on. In the second question the age of the respondents was asked. The age group of the respondents was divided into 18 to 25 yrs old, 25 to 34 yrs old, 35 to 44 yrs old, 45 to 54 yrs old and 55 years old and above. The respondents were on the age limit of 35 to 44 yrs old. In the third question the educational attainment of the respondents were given attention. The educational level was divided into secondary level, post-secondary level, bachelor degree, postgraduate and others.   The respondents were college graduates and had bachelor degree. In the fourth question   the respondents were asked about their average income. The average income was divided into ,000-,000; ,001 to ,000; ,001-,000; ,001- ,000; ,001 or higher. The respondents earned around ,001 to , 000. They earned a salary not that high and not that low. In the fifth question the respondents were asked about their occupation. The occupation of the respondents determines what part of the problem they saw. The occupation of the respondents determines how wide the knowledge of the respondent has towards the problem. The choices of the respondents were clerical or rank and file; supervisor; manager; senior manager and top executive. The number of respondents was divided into manager, supervisor, and rank and file. The variety of the occupation of respondents gives the study more chance to have ideas coming not only from the management, but the lower branch of the company.    The ideas will not only come from management but it can come from the bridge of the management and the clerks which is the supervisor. These people experience different things in the business and can provide the best incite on things. In the sixth question the respondents were asked what, in the business process they perform, prevent them from satisfying your customers and creating quality products and services. Most of the respondents replied that the use of balanced scorecard prevent them from satisfying customer needs. They believed that although its effect is not that huge it contributes to them not being able to give excellent service. In the seventh question the respondents were asked what does technology or the lack of it do to enhance or inhibit effective process performance. Majority of the respondents believe that the technology they have is satisfying their demands and helps in providing effective performance. The improper use of technology makes it difficult for the respondents to provide effective service. In the eighth question the respondents were asked what does the organization structure do to enhance or inhibit effective process performance. The respondents replied that the company constantly research and discover new methods to produce products and services that will satisfy the clients. The respondents also replied that the BPR being used by the company is slowly promoting effective service to the clients. The BPR is changing the way the employees serve the clients, the employees are starting to become more patient and have a sense of being customer oriented. Moreover as mentioned by the respondents the company is conducting marketing research improve the way the company is serving its clients. Through the use of the marketing research new methods to provide efficient service is discovered and introduced to the personnel.  In the ninth question the respondents were asked what do the reward structures do to enhance or inhibit effective process performance. Majority of the respondents replied that the reward systems help boost the personnel spirit thus they assist in bringing an effective process performance. The reward systems give the personnel a different kind of drive to provide an efficient service. These reward systems come in either cash or additional non monetary benefits. In the tenth question the respondents were asked what do the measurement systems or lack of them do to enhance or inhibit process performance. The respondents replied that the measurement system helps the company in correcting their wrong practices, after correcting themselves better products and services is then rendered to clients.   Data Analysis The questionnaire and the response of the people showed that there is a problem with the business process being used. The business process should be the one making things easier for the company but it is in way ineffective and it does not help the company in providing the best service to clients. The response of the people showed that the company has the best technology available but sometimes it is not used well and the technique of using it does not produce into creating a service that is above standards. The misuse of technology and no proper guidance in using it hampers the company to provide effective service. The response of the people showed that the company is doing everything they can to make the personnel give the necessary effort to provide clients with effective customer service.  These methods include using BPR and engaging in marketing research. They are constantly discovering new ways to provide a service that is different from others. Moreover the response of the people showed that reward structures contribute and help in making the personnel of the company extract effort to provide products and services that will satisfy people’s needs.    Reward structures if used can create a positive output to the company. It can help in creating highly reliable employees that can create products and services that can satisfy the needs of the clients. Lastly the response of the people showed that measurement systems help in making sure that the company provides excellent service. Measurement systems provide analysis of how a company provides service to its clients and through it the company can be changed for the better. The measurement systems checks which group in the company are not doing well. After determining the weak part of the company proper actions can be taken against them. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Business process reengineering

Hypothesis By its nature performance measurement is a diverse subject. Researchers with functional backgrounds as diverse as accounting,...

To determine the possibility of increasing the customer base through internet banking

My  6 Hypothesis as follows. a) Does Perceived usefulness (PU) has a positive effect on consumer acceptance of online banking ? b) Can Perceived ease of use (PEOU) has a positive effect on consumer acceptance of online banking ? c) Does Perceived enjoyment (PE) has a positive effect on consumer acceptance of online banking d) Is the amount of information a consumer has about online banking has a positive effect on consumer acceptance of online banking? e) Does security and privacy have a positive effect on consumer acceptance of online banking ? f) Can the quality of the internet connection has a positive effect on consumer acceptance of online banking ?   Now Using my data I want to  run factor analysis (I want to use SPSS) and want to know which hypothesis is supported. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

To determine the possibility of increasing the customer base through internet banking

My 6 Hypothesis as follows. a) Does Perceived usefulness (PU) has a positive effect on consumer acceptance of online banking ? b) Ca...

Assignment 2 – PSYC3051

PSYC3051 – Comparison of Two Articles: Fear Learning and Memory of Rats               This paper discusses the comparison of two published articles on the behavioral mechanisms for fear extinction in rats. The first article was entitled, “Different Mechanisms of Fear Extinction Dependent on Length of Time since Fear Acquisition”, which was written by  in 2006. On the other hand, the other article was entitled “Recent Fear is Resistant to Extinction”, which was written by  and  in 2006.   Aims and Rationale             The aim of the study of  (2006) is to study the hypothesis that states that the mechanism of fear extinction in animals, likewise in humans, may differ depending on the time at which the extinction training is provided. It also aims to study the neurological basis for the mechanism of fear conditioning and extinction based on the experiments. The reason behind this study is the lack of information and relevant studies on the neural mechanisms and pathways of the acquisition, consolidation, and expression of fear, which have profound effects to the psychological and biological changes of an organism. Such would also be useful in clinical interventions and study. On the other hand, the aim of the study of  and  (2006) is to study and make conclusions on whether early interventions would be more effective than delayed interventions in reducing posttraumatic stress after a relentless incident. It also aims to examine the effects of levels of fear present to the efficacy of fear extinction. The rationale behind such aims is to determine the efficacy of whether providing early or delayed intervention to fearful and stressful experiences that may lead to psychological and emotional disorders. In addition, this study was also conducted to provide better psychological treatment in the clinical and medical field.   Methods and Results             The study of (2006) used male Sprague-Dawley rats, which weighed 350-450 grams. Such animals were subjected to four consecutive experiments to be able to obtain their responses with regards of fear acquisition and extinction. For fear acquisition, the study used light as a conditioned stimulus and footshock as an unconditioned stimulus. The extinction training of the rats was divide into 4 intervals, namely, 10min, 1h, 24h, and 72h, wherein light was used as a conditioned stimulus without the presence of the footshock. Testing of the fear responses of the rats was examined through fear-potentiated startles, which can be observed after the extinction training. The presence and the absence of the fear-potentiated startles were used as basis for the retention of fear of the rats. The first experiment in this study was conducted to examine the effects of reinstatement of fear in the rats. Result of this experiment suggests that rats following 24h and 72h of fear extinction after fear acquisition showed signs of forceful fear recovery to the conditioned stimulus, followed by the absence of the footshock. On the other hand, the rats following 10min and 1h of fear extinction training after fear acquisition showed signs of little or no recovery of fear. In this regard, it can be deduced from the experiment that long periods of not exposure to fear stimulus leads to more robust fear recovery, while more frequent exposure to fear leads to lesser or lack of fear recovery. The second experiment done under this study was to examine the effects of renewal of fear in rats. The renewal of fear in rats was done by exposure of rats in different contexts. This result suggest that differences can be observed in the different contexts, such that the lack of significant renewal in the short-interval groups displayed lack or reduced reinstatement of fear, while animals with more fear renewal displayed more robust fear recovery. In this regard, the interval or time of exposure of rats to the source of fear determines their response. The third experiment done under this study was aimed at examining the effects of spontaneous recovery of fear in the rats, which involves the reappearance of the conditioned stimulus followed by its extinction. Result of this experiment are still similar with the results of the other two experiments, wherein the 72h group exhibited forceful recovery of fear over time, the 1h group displayed smaller but notable recovery of fear, and the 10min group displayed the lack of fear recovery. Lastly, the fourth experiment done under this study was to examine the magnitude of extinction in the 10min group, for further understanding of its lack of fear recovery. The experiment suggests that the lack or reduced fear-potentiated startle of the rats in the 10min group is attributed to the amount of fear acquired by the rats, as opposed to the efficacy of extinction. As such, it can be suggested that the amount of fear of the rats in the 10min group is relatively low compared to the other groups. The study of the other article was done using male Long-Evan rats, weighing 250-330 grams, which was subjected to five consecutive experiments. In contrast to the other study, fear acquisition was administered using footshock as the conditioned stimulus and tone as the unconditioned stimulus. The extinction of fear was administered with the intervals of 15min and 24h, wherein conditioned stimulus was presented without the presence of the unconditioned stimulus. Differences ranged on the amount of tone administered for each experiment. Levels of fear of the rats were observed through freezing. The first experiment done aimed at examining the effects of immediate or delayed extinction of fear after conditioning, which compared two different times. Result of this experiment suggests that rats provided with extinction training 15min after fear acquisition displayed higher levels of freezing, while rats provided with extinction training 24h after fear acquisition displayed delayed extinction. Such findings are the opposite of the findings of the other experiment, as this experiment suggests that forceful fear recovery can be observed in rats that underwent extinction training shortly after fear acquisition, while rats less or reduced fear recovery can be observed in rats that underwent extinction training after longer periods following fear acquisition. The second experiment was done by equalizing the test interval in the immediate and delayed extinction groups, wherein the retention of the fear of both groups was examined 48h after extinction training. The result of this experiment was similar to the result of the first experiment, wherein rats in the immediate extinction condition displayed forceful fear retention and weak fear extinction, while rats in the delayed extinction condition exhibited stronger fear extinction and less fear retention. The third experiment done compared the results of massed or distributed extinction trials after fear acquisition. Result of the experiment suggests that neither massed nor distributed extinction trials are effective in fear retention in the rats if administered shortly after fear acquisition. The aim of the fourth experiment was to reduce the level of fear before the onset of extinction training. This experiment suggests that reducing the levels of fear of the rats before extinction training produces significant reduction in fear retention. The last experiment was done to prove if arousing the fear of the rats before extinction training would impair their extinction memory. This experiment suggests that recent fear appears to lessen the long-term extinction memory of the rats.   Main Conclusions             From the different experiments done, both studies arrived at contrasting conclusions. The main conclusions derived by  (2006) in their study is that fear extinction is greatly achieved if extinction training is provided at an interval of 10min after fear acquisition, while fear extinction is not achieved if extinction training is given at a later period. Te extinction of fear was explained by the authors using the neurochemical process, as the extinction of fear in the 10min group is due to synaptic depotentiation, where the expression of protein phosphatase calcineurin is increased, and through the L-VGCC-independent mechanism, which is also associated with depotentiation. On the other hand, the conclusion of  and  (2006) suggests rather a contrary statement, as they point out that fear extinction is minimal when extinction training is administered shortly after fear acquisition, while fear extinction would be greatly achieved when extinction training is administered after longer periods following fear acquisition. In addition, the authors also suggest that fear extinction is dependent on the level of fear prior to extinction training, rather than the time interval.   Clinical Implications             Both studies are relevant in psychological and clinical fields, and can be both used in the treatment of anxiety disorders, such as Post Traumatic Stress Disorders and phobias. However, the first study, because it delved more on the neurobiological aspect of fear acquisition and extinction, its implication would be more on the field of biopsychology, where biological processes and functions are significantly related to the many theories and concepts of psychology. In this regard, the use of this study is not only limited to addressing anxiety disorders, but also is also relevant in addressing other psychological disorders, such as psychoneurosis, which is also mainly due to anxiety. It has been mentioned that the second study is directed at providing better treatment to PTSD or Post Traumatic Stress Disorder. Because it is directed at providing conclusions on how to address and provide treatment or interventions on PTSD, its implication, similar to the first study, would not only be focused on PTSD, but on other psychological disorders as well. Most of the psychological disorders stem from a number of fearful and stressful events in the environment. Thus, such events are considered one of the leading causes of mental disorders. In this regard, this study can be used in the provision of treatment and intervention for clients having psychological problems and illnesses.   Evaluation of Reasons of Differences in Results             Experiments in the study done by  (2006) present a trend of poorer extinction in the short-interval groups, compared in the long-interval groups, which is determined by higher levels of fear-potentiated startle in the post-extinction test. Reasons provided in the study indicate that the 10min group was used as a control group, and that the difference in its response lies on the fact that its mechanism of fear retention and extinction is different from the other groups. In addition, the authors also emphasized that both qualitative and quantitative differences must be taken note off, for short-interval extinction is determined through inhibitory learning mechanism and happens to be much stronger or more efficient than long-interval extinction. Similarly, the mechanism of short-interval extinction presents a qualitative difference from long-interval extinction, which involves the process of erasure. On the other hand, the study of  and  (2006) also expressed differences in results due to the different levels of retention of the extinction memory. This difference was explained by the authors as being due to the levels of fear of the rats during the extinction training, rather than the time interval following fear acquisition. The time interval of administering the extinction training does not indicate the level of retention of extinction memory because both fear extinction and conditioning produces excitatory and inhibitory memories, such that they compete with each other for expression in behavior of the organism. In this regard, the extinction of fear does not erase its memory, thus, emphasizing the differences.   Other Reasons for Differences Primarily, the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli used by the two studies are very different from one another. Because fear extinction of the rats depends on the level of fear, it can be assumed that the level of fear of the rats in the study of  (2006) was of different degree, compared to the level of fear of the rats in the study of  and  (2006). Second, the effect of the use of electricity or shocks can also be taken note off. The amount of electric shocks used in both studies is different from one another, thus, may become a source of the retention of the extinction memory. In this regard, the effect of electricity can be emphasized, as to have effects in the retention of memory. Recent researches have found out that minimal electric shocks to the brain may improve memory retention. However, it can be assumed that increase in the amount of electric shock may lead to severe tissue damage and memory loss. Third difference can be accounted for the difference in the time intervals used in the two studies. Fear extinction training was administered in four intervals in the study of (2006), while extinction training was only done in two intervals in the study of  and  (2006). References                           Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Assignment 2 – PSYC3051

PSYC3051 – Comparison of Two Articles: Fear Learning and Memory of Rats This paper discusses the comparison of two publis...

Religion in UN Anti-Terrorism Countermeasures

Religion in UN Anti-Terrorism Countermeasures             Despite the vehement advocacy of the United Nations that terrorism cannot be readily equated to religious acts, in an attempt to thwart persecutions or discriminations based on religion, particularly Islam because of perceptions of its link to terrorism, religion remains at the core of the terrorism issues. Although the definition of terrorism is still evolving and subject to debate, existing conceptualisation of this issue do not equate terrorism with religion or religious fanaticism. In 1937, the convention of the League of Nations proposed the definition of terrorism as any “criminal acts directed against a State intended or calculated to create a state of terror in the minds of particular persons or a group of persons or the general public”. From this definition, there was no explicit or implicit mention of religion. However, this definition does not rule out the possibility of religious groups heading this form of criminal action. In 1999, the language of UN Resolution proposed the definition of terrorism as the “criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the general public, a group of persons or particular persons for political purposes are in any circumstances unjustifiable, whatever the considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or other nature that may be invoked to justify them”. This definition extended the previous proposed conceptualisation by recognising that this form of criminal actions may be justified by a number of factors including religious beliefs. Based on the current understanding of terrorism, this is a criminal action intended to provoke fear in particular groups or the general public and justified by a number of reasons including religious beliefs and issues.             Although the UN does not and cannot condemn any religion for the terrorist acts of individuals or groups adhering to these religious belief systems, the international organisation cannot deny that in some acts of terrorism, religious beliefs have been used to justify terrorist actions. In developing countermeasures, the UN has to resolve two issues. First is developing a definition or conceptualisation of terrorism through the consensus of the General Assembly. This is necessary because continuing debates on the definition of terrorism has hampered efforts to develop effective countermeasures that prevent loss of innocent lives instead of adding to the number of terrorist victims. Second is determining the link or place of religion in the conceptualisation of the definition of terrorism to draw the cooperation of various member countries in advocacies or actions against terrorism. The UN is composed of various member countries with some countries having a religiously concentrated population.             As such, it is fitting and significant to investigate existing UN anti-terrorism countermeasures to determine the extent that the United Nations have progressed in developing a definition of religion that recognises its use as justification in some terrorist acts but does not develop discriminatory perceptions against any religion. It is only by focusing on this task that the UN can effectively draw the active participation and cooperation of religiously concentrated states and nations in developing and implementing anti-terrorism countermeasures.   Culture as a Context in Clarifying Terrorism             Immediately after the shock of the 9/11 incident, efforts were made to determine the group behind this act of terror and the justifications for these acts. Soon enough, the group Al Qaeda admitted to planning and implementing these acts. Osama bin Laden and other group leaders made this admission public. This group claimed that this was payback for all the atrocities of the US government against the Muslim people. From the events, it appears that the justification for the acts of terrorism was socio-cultural. Reference to the ‘western culture’, specifically the American culture because of its dominance as a western culture has been mentioned now and again by leaders or terrorist groups. They claim that the interventionism of the US government and the imposition of its culture and systems have contributed to the decline of their own culture and national pride. It seems that the terrorist acts were an expression of anti-western sentiments of groups adhering to the Islamic faith and belonging to the Arab culture. It cannot be denied that culture was used as justification for terrorist acts but it is a different issue altogether whether these anti-western claims have strong historical and factual basis.              Culture and inter-cultural exchanges can constitute a context for terrorism. This is because of differences, which may be irreconcilable that could cause conflict when un-accommodated or suppressed. Cultures have different perceptions of justice, with some cultures leaning towards compensation and correction as means of settling disputes while others consider retaliation as the fitting response to conflicts. Cultures also have varying hate-retention degrees across generations with some cultures adjusting to intercultural conflicts in the centuries past while others cultivate the continuity of the cycle of atrocities and retaliation in the younger generations. In some instances, younger generations cultivate hatred and do actions against people of a different culture without really understanding the reasons for doing so.             The ethnic cleansing in Bosnia has resulted to deaths, division of families, rapes and other atrocities made all under the guise of cultural or ethnic cleansing. However, this was not considered as terrorist acts by the United Nations. It was considered as an internal political problem that needed the intervention of peace-keeping forces. The cultural justification of Al Qaeda in hijacking planes and crashing these in landmark western institutions was considered as acts of terrorism. This creates the problem of understanding the role of culture in terrorist acts apart from determining what constitutes terrorism, whether acts justified by culture or culture-based atrocities constitute terrorism for purposes of not only intervening to keep the peace but also to identify, apprehend and try the people involved for the criminal act of terrorism.               United Nations, as the international body charged with providing channels for intercultural exchange, introduced laws addressing discrimination because of ethnicity or culture; and resolutions calling for multiculturalism and tolerance. However, there is need for the UN to do more by determining terrorism in the context of culture to determine the appropriate anti-terrorism measures and clarify while some acts linked to culture are considered acts of terrorism while others are not.             Distinguishing Political from Terrorist Acts             Two decades of involvement of the UN, in violence in different countries for various reasons, has muddled the distinction between legitimate political acts and acts of terrorism. Differentiating these kinds of actions is important in determining policies or regulations to use in dealing with the issue. Terrorist actions constitute criminal infractions subject to the appropriate action of UN and its various institutional arms. A number of individuals linked to the Al Qaeda and other terrorist organisations have been apprehended. Political movements can constitute legitimate developments in the political life of states. A region within a state by using arms to establish its own political identity outside of the state could become legitimate if these efforts succeed such as in the case of East Timor extended recognition to become a new legitimate state.             However, in some instances political acts also become linked to terrorism. Initially, Iraq was widely criticised by a number countries, especially the US for developing its nuclear arms. The adamant move of states against nuclear weapons is valid because of the concern for security since nuclear weapons when detonated can reach miles extending outside of national borders. This concern was addressed by the UN by sending people to inspect the alleged installations used in developing nuclear weapons implied for use in terrorism. As it turned out, there were no substantive reports stating that Iraq has been testing nuclear weapons. Positive results could have justified the entry of military troops in Iraq. Due to this roadblock, the US justified its entry and intervention in Iraq with the human rights violations of Saddam Hussein for which he was executed.               This situation is problematic because of the interchanging of claims of terrorist and political acts depending upon the intervening factors so that this muddled the difference between political acts, which could be valid, and terrorist acts that could never legitimate. The United Nations has to be involved in delineating political from terrorist acts to prevent the grouping of all actions under the term ‘terrorism’. This is important for the purpose of determining whether the acts of states are political acts that may not necessarily warrant the intervention of the UN or other states in interest as well as whether the acts of groups and states constitute terrorist acts that warrant the intervention of the UN or concerned states in keeping the peace and apprehending criminals. This is to prevent future interchanges in terrorism and political actions in determining one act as terrorism but justifying a similar act as politically legitimate.             In the case states involved in civil conflicts, actions may be necessary as acts of self-determination but in other instances, the persecution and acts of violence by one group against another distinct group could constitute terrorism that involves due action from the United Nations. In the apprehension of individuals, the distinction also plays an important role to prevent the consideration of people involved in political acts as terrorists and terrorists from receiving the justification for their actions as exercises of political will.       Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Religion in UN Anti-Terrorism Countermeasures

Religion in UN Anti-Terrorism Countermeasures Despite the vehement advocacy of the United Nations that terrorism cannot be ...

Hypothesis: The presence of membrane-bound organelles and nucleus has allowed eukaryotes to become multicellular.

Hypothesis: The presence of membrane-bound organelles and nucleus has allowed eukaryotes to become multicellular.               A eukaryote is any life-form consisting of one or more cells that contain a membrane-bound nucleus and organelles separate from the plasma membrane enveloping the cell. Prokaryotes on the other hand do not have membrane-bound organelles and nucleus. Prokaryotes typically do not have membrane-bound organelles but the cell membrane may, as in photosynthetic bacteria, have intricate infoldings to increase surface area for various chemical processes. Well organized and delimited nuclei are lacking in certain simple organisms but distinct genetic material is distributed through the cytoplasm although it is not limited by a membrane. The partitioning of the cytoplasm achieved by membrane-bounded organelles and nucleus in eukaryotes enhances the efficiency of countless chemical reactions by amplifying the area of physiologically active interfaces within the cell. This facilitates control of cell metabolism by enabling the cell to maintain a separation of enzymes and their substances at some times, and at other times, permitting their controlled interaction by varying the permeability of a particular membrane or the rate of active transport across it. Most of the physiologically important processes take place at surfaces and interfaces, and the demonstration of extensive compartmentalization of the cytoplasm by membranes in eukaryotic cells has been an important contribution for eukaryotes becoming multicellular. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Hypothesis: The presence of membrane-bound organelles and nucleus has allowed eukaryotes to become multicellular.

Hypothesis: The presence of membrane-bound organelles and nucleus has allowed eukaryotes to become multicellular. A euka...

Alcoholism in the Workplace: Annotated Bibliography and Pros/Cons of Null Hypothesis

Alcoholism in the Workplace: Annotated Bibliography   1.            Alternative method in the treatment of alcoholism: The united technologies corporation day treatment program. Journal of Occupational Medicine, 25, 300 – 303.          This study focuses on the description of the United Technologies Corp. day treatment program for its alcoholic employees. The said program was already available at the counseling center in New Britain, Connecticut. Most of the alcoholics do not require lengthy inpatient hospitalization, because the day is popular for many of the employed alcoholics, particularly their families. The program helped the company to realize that treatment outcome was not that related or connected with the long treatment and high treatment costs.   2.            Ames, G. M. & Grube, J. W. (1999). Alcohol availability and workplace drinking: Mixed method analyses. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 60: 383 – 393.          The authors study about the relationship between the subjective social as and the physical availability of alcohol at work and other work-related drinking. It uses the survey and ethnography in order to know if and why the physical and social availability of alcohol can predict the work-related drinking in a manufacturing plant with more or less 6,000 employees. The result of the study shows that the strongest predictors of alcohol consumption and heavy drinking are subjective availability of alcohol at work, and perceived drinking by friends and co-workers. In addition it also shows that the quantity of alcohol consumption is predictive, and the subjective physical availability was not that vital in drinking at or before work.   3.            Ames, G.M., Grube, J.W., & Moore, R.S. (1997). The relationship of drinking and hangovers to workplace problems: An empirical study. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 58, 37 – 47.          The authors study about the relationship between drinking patterns and workplace problems in a manufacturing facility that is operated by a Fortune 500 industry. The data was gathered from a survey that was conducted to 832 hourly employees and from ethnographic research in the plant of the company. The author also focuses on examining a large random sample of workers rather than an impaired subpopulation and asked the employees regarding how much they drank before, during and after working hours as well as information regarding hangover. The result shows that overall drinking outside of work, before and after work and coming to work with hangover were related to the different work problems that are being experienced by the respondents such as conflicts with the boss and managers. Thus workplace problems were also related with the age, gender, ethnicity, work shifts and even department.   4.            Ames, G.M., Grube, J.W., & Moore, R.S. (2000). Social control and workplace drinking norms: A comparison of two organizational cultures. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 61, 203 – 219.          The study shows that investigation about the relationship of social control mechanism at work to drinking practices of 10,000 salaried and hourly employees that works in the same U.S. industry with the same union but with the different work environments: first is traditional U.S. management and the other is nontraditional Japanese transplant model. The method that was used is in-home surveys of 1,378 and ethnography. The respondents were asked about the work related drinking, perceptions of drinking norms, alcohol-related policies and different procedures in policy enforcement. The result shows that the overall consumption rates in both the groups were similar, however the differences exists in the work-related drinking. The traditional U.S. model was related to more permissive norms about drinking before or during work, while higher workplace drinking rates were related with the Japanese model.   5.             Appelbaum, S. (1982). Rescuing time from the bottle. Canadian Banker and ICB Review, 89, 226          The author of the study looks at the impact of alcoholism on the alcoholic employee. It showed the different economic effects of the employee alcoholism on the North American Rockwell Corp., Gulf Canada Ltd. and the Illinois Bell Telephone Co. It also presented the ten indicators of employee alcoholism and then discusses the different stages of alcoholism. Thus, it also shows the ten vital steps in order to start and implement an alcoholism counseling program.   6.            Archer, J. (1981). Alcoholism and alienation among blue collar workers: Test of a causal theory. Dissertation Abstract International, 42. The study gathered data from 160 male blue-collar workers. 80 of the workers were alcoholics, while the remaining 80 were not alcoholics. The result showed that alcoholics experience disappointed life expectations more frequently than do the non-alcoholics. 7.            Argeriou, M. & Manohar, V. (1978). Relative effectiveness of nonalcohollics and recovered alcoholics as counselors. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 39, 793 – 799.          The researchers focus on counseling the problems drinkers who participated in the Services for Traffic Safety Project in Boston, by two groups of counselors. The first group is consisted of former alcoholic, while the other group did not have any alcohol problems. The result showed that the recovered alcoholics were more effective as counselors than were the counselors who did not have any present or past drinking experiences and problems.   8.            Baggot, R. (1994). Implementation and development of alcohol policies in the workplace. Health Education Journal, 53(1), 3 – 14.          The author show the findings of a comparative study of workplace alcohol policies at the local level in Leeds and Leicester in 1991 and 192. the study identified the different factors that are likely to lead to the adoption of an alcohol policy by the employers and the examined the processes where in policies were designed, initiated and then developed.   9.            Bamberger, P. & Barhom-Kidron, A. (1998). Spirits at work in the promised land. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 34(4), 445 – 467.       The authors studied how the notion of ethnic identity can be related with the relationship between the work-related risk factors and alcohol problems. The study used data from 58 recovering Israeli alcoholics. The result showed that ethnic identity may play a vital role in shaping the perception of and responses on alcohol-related workplace risk like stress and alienation.   10.        Bealer, J. D. (1977). Hiring recovered alcoholics: A policy that pays. Labor-Management Alcoholism Journal, 7, 20 – 21.          The author stated the reason why alcoholics should be hired and then give case of a bank with a policy for of employing recovered alcoholics for 8 years. The study shows that only about 2% of the entire population of the recovered alcoholics that were hired was fired because of the relapse of drinking.   11.        Beattie, M., Longabaugh, R. & Fava, J. (1992). Assessment of alcohol-related activities: Development and testing of “your workplace”. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 53(5), 469-475.          The study shows different alcohol-related workplace activities that are assessed using a short, easy to administer, self-report instruction. In addition it also showed other important tools and methodology.   12.        Beattie, M., Longabaugh, R., Elliott, G. Stout, R., Fava, J. & Noel, N. (1993). Effect of the social environment on alcohol involvement and subjective well-being prior to alcoholism treatment. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 54(3), 283-296          The study focuses on the conceptual model that was developed in order to explain the abusive use of alcohol and reports the result of the initial test of the conceptualization process. The study uses the cross-sectional test of two models using the data that have been gathered from 148 alcoholic respondents that enters the treatment at a private nonprofit psychiatric facility. The result shows that there is no direct relationship between the alcohol involvement and the subjective well-being. Thus, there is no interrelationship between the alcohol involvement and the subjective well-being once the supporting variables are taken into the account. As a result, treatment must be connected with the social network of the respondents, using the families and friends in order to provide general social support and then alcohol relevant.   13.        Beaumont, P. B. & Allsop, S. J. (1984). An industrial alcohol policy: The characteristics of worker success. British Journal of Addiction, 79, 315 – 318.          The study focuses on studying the 48% of the employees of the company that received treatment for alcohol problems. The result showed that 14 of the employee had voluntarily sought for help, 34 were referred by the employer. As a result, the self-referral was connected with poor treatment outcome compared to the employer referral.   14.        Beavers, C. H. (1984). An evaluation of the impact of an employee assistance program on alcohol abusing employees. Dissertation Abstract International, 46.          The author of the study focuses on one 155 employees who abuse alcohol as the primary source for data. The employees were divided into a different treatment groups as well as comparison groups. The authors focus on the behavior and health cost of alcoholism in the workplace. It showed its relationship on absent, disciplinary incidents as well as the amount of the medical benefits that were paid by the employers.   15.        Bell, N.S., Mangione, Y.W., Howland, J., Levine, S., And Amick, B. (1996). Worksite barriers to the effective management of alcohol problems. Journal of Occupational & Environmental Medicine, 38, 1213 – 1219.          The study focuses on analyzing and describing the different barriers in the workplace interventions in different cases of alcohol abuse. The researchers used survey as their method of gathering data to 7255 supervisors in 114 different worksites in seven major corporations. The result shows that most of the managers are encountering different barriers regarding intervention that are related with the worksite, job and even the entire environment. In addition, barriers were considered as greatest for the female managers, managers in the larger worksites as well as the first-line supervisors. Thus, the intervention strategies must be taken into account differently between different worksites and levels of job, and must not assume that the policies will be equally effective throughout the entire corporation.   16.        Bennett, J. B. & Lehman, W. E. K. (1998). Workplace drinking climate, stress, and problem indicators: assessing the influence of teamwork (group cohesion). Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 59(5), 608-618.\ Although there have been different studies regarding the impact of alcoholism towards individual performance at work, there are less literature that focuses on the impact of one’s drinking behavior to his or her co-workers. The study focuses on their hypothesis that the exposure to co-worker that are drinking as well as the presence of the drinking climate are related with the different reports regarding stress and other problems in working environment. The study was done by gathering data from two random samples of the municipal employees and surveys. The said method was used in order to review the individual drinking, co-worker drinking, task-oriented group cohesion, the direct reports of the negative consequences because of alcohol and other substances and the five problems indicators which as the job stress, job withdrawal, health problems and performance. The result shows that the drinking climate as well as the individual job stress was not related with the cohesion.   17.         Beyer, J. M. & Trice, H. M. (1978). Implementing Change: Alcoholism in Work Organizations. New York: Free Press.          The author focuses on reporting the study regarding the effort of the legislation that was designed in order to implement different changes in the issue about the alcoholism in the workplace. In addition, the study analyzes and shows the deliberate and planned changed, than the spontaneous change. Above all, the authors tackle the change process, sampling, data collection, statistics, stages of implementation, roles of directions as well as the inter-organizational relations.   18.        Bigus, O. E. (1974). ‘Becoming Alcoholic: A Study of Social Transformation’, Dissertation Abstract International, 35          The author analyzes the different process by which individuals become alcoholics. It shows the transition from normal social network to an alcoholic career, where in the normal social network can be family and occupation. Thus, drinking behavior is considered as responsible for the alcoholic’s eventual disengagement from the normal social networks. The authors used interviews and participant observation as the primary data.   19.        Blackford, C. E., III. (1978). What does employee alcoholism really cost? Labor-Management Alcoholism Journal, 7, 22 – 23. The authors analyze the quantifiable cost that are involved in the employee alcoholism programs and then explained that about 8 non-quantifiable savings are related with the said programs. Workplace accident reduction, tardiness, unpaid absence as well as the replacement training cost are the four most important non-quantifiable.   20.        Blum, T. & Roman, P. (2002). The Workplace and Alcohol Problem Prevention. Alcohol Research & Health, 26(1), 49 – 63. The study focuses on the fact that the workplace programs can help to prevent and reduce different alcohol-related problems among the employees. The study shows the three most important events that are related to the alcohol problems in the workplace. First is the relationship between the drinking pattern with the job performance problems like the poor-quality work, poor quantity of work, attendance problems and the problems about relationship with the customers. Second is that the decision of the employees can cause problems towards themselves that will cause source of assistance in the workplace. And last, an identification of the co-worker of an apparent alcohol problem is used in order to refer to an employee workplace-based assistance. As a result, the authors focus on the different intervention methods that can be used in order to prevent and lessen the problems that are related to the said subject such as the EAP.   21.        Blum, T. & Martin, J. (1985). The social transformation of alcoholism intervention: Comparison of job attributes and performance of recovered alcoholics and non-alcoholics. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 26, 365 – 378. The  authors reviewed the history of employment of the recovered alcoholics in the alcoholism field. The recovered alcoholics were compared with the non-alcoholics in terms of job attitudes and the adjustments, together with the job performance.   22.        Blum, T. & Martin, J. (1993). Alcohol consumption and work performance. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 54(1), 61-70          The authors examine the work performance of 136 male respondents by using self reports and reports of workplace collaterals. The comparison is made using different dimensions of work performance and different levels of alcohol consumption. The result showed that the different levels of drinking are not directly connected with the scales of self-reported work performance, but comparatively heavy drinkers are less frequently absent and late to their work compare to those who are lighter drinkers. On the other hand, the collateral reports shows that heavy drinkers are comparatively score lower on the self-direction at work, conflict avoidance at work as well as interpersonal relations at work. In addition, the connection between the alcohol consumption and the technical aspect of performance is not clear, but the overall negative impact of alcohol consumption and technical aspects of work performance were clear based on the workplace collateral reports.   23.        Boscarino, J. (1977). Alcohol career patterns in alcoholics anonymous: A systematic approach to alcoholic defined behavior. Dissertation Abstract International, 38.          This study with the help of deviant career concept explains the alcoholic behavior with the use of sociological and social psychology data. The deviant career concept was used in order to show how people come to be connected with the Alcoholics Anonymous or AA that helps to understand the understanding about deviant and non-deviant behavioral phenomena. 24.        Breitenburcher, F. J. (1982). The concept of alcoholism. Dissertation Abstract International, 42. The study focuses on the basic but important information about alcoholism such as the determinants as well as the different definition of the term alcoholism based on the past literatures and studies.   25.        Bride, B. & Nackerud, L. (2002). The Disease Model of Alcoholism: A Kuhnian Paradigm. Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare, 29(2), 125 – 136.          The said study shows an option or choice explanation regarding the reluctance of alcoholism treatment community to renounce disease model that was introduced by utilizing the Kuhn’s model of scientific progress in 1996. The study uses the scientific progress in analyzing the disease model in historical manger. The authors shows evidence regarding the materialization of the disease model as a paradigm, alcoholism research as normal science as well as the coming out of the anomaly that was followed by the crisis in the research and treatment community that are related with the alcoholism.   26.        Brinkley, G. (1999). The causal relationship between socioeconomic factors and alcohol consumption: A granger causality time series analysis, 1950 – 1993. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 60(6), 759-768. The study analyzes the relationship between social demographics and economic factors that influence the alcohol consumption. The effects of all the factors were measured and examined using the Granger-causality time series framework. The result showed that the economic variables are Granger-caused by the social or even demographic changes over the past four decade and have a small direct influence on intake of alcohol.   27.        Campbell, R. & Langford, E. (1995). Substance Abuse in the Workplace. Boca Raton, Florida: Lewis Publishers.          The authors focus on analyzing that the substance abuse in the workplace has a vital contribution to the national movement in order to cover the issue regarding drug abuse. The authors shows the entire history of the substance use and then shows the different health impacts of alcohol in daily performance primarily at work.   28.        Coney, J. C. (1978). Exploring the Known and Unknown Factors in the Rates of Alcoholism Among Black and White Females. Palo Alto, California: R & E Research Association.          In spite of the fact that the dilemma regarding alcoholism had gained national and international attention, there was a small attention that was given towards the issue of alcohol to the black women. Most of the confusion comes along with the different literatures that are related to alcohol abuse among the total black population. As a result, it can be seen in the increase of alcoholism among the black females. This book or study opens the said topic by showing the different problems, methodologies as well as the different literatures in the said aspect.   29.        Connors, G.J. & Maisto, S.A. Drinking Reports From Collateral Individuals. Addiction Supplement 2, 2, 21 – 29.          Subject self-reports are considered as the primary source of research and clinical data on the drinking behavior. This study focuses on the different current literature regarding on the reliability and accuracy of the alcohol abusers’ self-reports of alcohol consumption and other related behavior that are connected.   30.        Conte, H. R., Pluctchnik, R. Picard, S, Galanter, M.  & Jacoby, J. (1991). Sex differences in personality traits and coping styles of hospitalized alcoholics. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 52(1), 26 – 32.          The author studied 40 inpatients on the unit of alcohol detoxification of large municipal hospitals by undergoing them to a battery tests that consists of a coping styles scale, a personality profile scale, depression scale and the brief MAST. In addition, a demographic comparable comparison group of 40 outpatients that are attending the medical screening clinic at the same hospital had also undergone the said battery exam. The said groups were in the same age, education and ration of men to women. The result shows that there were vital differences in terms of coping styles and personality characteristics between the alcoholics and the non-alcoholics, as well as the aspect between men and women in the alcoholic group. In addition, female group in the alcoholic groups shows a great difference in terms of coping styles and personality characteristics compare to the non-alcoholic women.   31.        Cyster, R. & McEwen, J. (1987). Alcohol education in the workplace. Health Education Journal, 46(4), 156 – 161.       The authors summarized the findings of the two-year research and development of project to design and implementation. It also evaluates the materials that were used in the alcohol education at the workplace. The study was based on the data that have been gathered from the major national employer of the Post Office, and then provide recommendations about the planning of the future initiatives for the said aspect.   32.        Delaney, W., Grube, J., Greiner, B., Fisher, J. & Ragland, D. (2002). Job stress, unwinding and drinking in transit operators. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 63(4), 420 – 429.          The researchers tested the spillover model regarding the effects of the work stress on after-work drinking by using the variable length of time to unwind as the mediator. The data was gathered from 1,975 transit operators in order to participate in a personal interview. The researchers used the latent variable structural equation modeling, a model was tested that predicted that the daily job problems, skipeed meals and even less social support has a great influence in increasing the alcohol consumption, through the mediator, length of time to unwind and relax after work. The result shows that the hypothesis of the authors regarding the impact of skipped meals and daily job problem on the time to unwind and then its connection to the overall drinking habit.   33.        Edwards, M. & Sproull, R. (1986). Confronting alcoholism through team evaluation. Business Horizons, 29, 78 – 83.          The authors describe the Team Evaluation and Management System or TEAMS as an effective approach in order to confront alcoholics in the workforce, due to the fact that it is suitable to the traditional methods of appraising employees.   34.        Fleming, M. (1975). Hostility in recovering alcoholic women compared to non-alcoholic women, and the effect of psychodrama on the former in reducing hostility. Dissertation Abstract International, 35.          The researchers study 110 women, 82 were already recovered alcoholic, while 30, were non-alcoholic. The result showed that the recovering alcoholic shows more hostility than the non-alcoholic female does.   35.        Follman, J. F, Jr. (1976). Alcoholics and Business: Problems, Costs, Solutions. New York: American Management.          This book focuses on the effects of alcoholism as well as problem drinking towards the business community, together with the entire industrial management, the employees and the organized labor. It also focuses on the health and welfare funds, as well as the different insurance programs.   36.        Gradus, J., Street, A. Kelly, K. & Stafford, J. (2008). Sexual harassment experiences and harmful alcohol use in a military sample: Differences in gender and the mediating role of depression.  Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 69(3), 348-351.          This study focuses on the investigation of symptoms of depression as a mediator of the association between sexual harassment during the military service and the harmful alcohol use using the sample of 3,946 former military personnel, stratified by gender. The result shows that women endorsed experiencing sexual harassment than men, and men endorsed harmful drinking more than women. Thus, the sexual harassment was not considered as a vital predictor of harmful alcohol use among men.   37.        Hagihara, A., Tarumi, K., Miller, A., Nebeshima, F. & Nobutomo, K. (2000). Work stressors and alcohol consumption among white-collar workers: A signal detection approach. Journal of Studies of Alcohol and Drugs, 61(3), 462-465.          The authors of the study believe that in the previous literatures and studies regarding the relationship between work stress and alcohol consumption, the results were inconsistent and inconclusive. The reason behind the inconsistency is that most of the study was using the simple models like the multiple regression analysis or the analysis of variance in order to examine the relationship between work stressor and alcohol consumption. The study uses the signal detection analysis method in order to evaluate higher order interactions of work stress variables as well as to obtain data from 465 Japanese male white-collar workers. The result shows that out of 11 work stressor or work position variables, 4 significant predictors of heavy alcohol consumption were identified.   38.        Harris, M. & Laura, H. (1992). Alcohol and drug use in the workplace: Issues, controversies, and directions for future research. Journal of Management, 18(2), 239 – 266. The researchers explained that drug and alcohol use in the workplace poses different problems in terms of practical interest, thus there are not enough literatures that focus on the said subject. The authors reviewed the extant research, highlight all the major controversies and issues and then suggested about the different future studies.   39.        Lazarus, B. & Adler, H. (1989). A study of workplace substance abuse programs in the hotel and motel industry. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 13(3), 457 – 462.       The study showed that 12% of the American workforce has substance abuse problems, and EAP’s is considered as one of the most applied employee assistance programs. The authors classified and categorized the current EAP’s as well as the perception of the managers regarding the problem about substance abuse in the hospitality industry.   40.        Marchand, A., Demers, A., Durand, P. & Simard, M. (2003). The moderating effect of alcohol intake on the relationship between work strains and psychological distress. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 64(3), 419-427.          The authors investigated the degree where in the alcohol intake can change the relationship between psychological distress and work strains. The study was based on the data that was gathered from 10,387 employees that are positioned in 422 different occupations. The study identified the four types of alcohol drinkers which are the: abstainers, drinkers that abstained from drinking during the last 7 days; low-risk drinkers; and the high-risk drinkers. The author uses the llfeld scale in order to measure the level of the psychological distress; the work strains were also measured with accordance to the Karasek’s skill utilitzation and use the multilevel logistic regression in order to adjust the gender and age. The result showed that 6.1% of the logic variance of psychological distress was between occupations, thus the decision authority, psychological demands, work schedule, gender and even age are related with the psychological distress.   41.        Malcolm, M. (1977). The system approach to alcoholism. Labor-Management Alcoholism Journal, 7, 22 – 23.       The author recommended a system approach to alcoholism and it must be used in the different employee alcoholism programs or EAPs. Thus, stating that the vital feature of the systems approach is that it does not focus on the process of determining why something happened, but it focuses on what, when and where it happened.   42.        Mangione, T.W., Howland, J., Amick, B., Cote, J., Lee, M., Bell, N., And Levine, S. (1999). Employee drinking practices and work performance. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 60, 261 – 270.          The study focuses on examining the independent impacts of different drinking indicators on self-reported work performance. The method that was used is the cross-sectional mailed survey of managers, supervisors and workers at 16 different worksites. The CAGE was used in order to designate the alcohol dependency. The work performance was analyzed by different questions regarding their problems about their work during the last year. The study shows that the aspects that are related with the demographics, job characteristics as well as life-situations were no longer vital in the relationship between work performances. In addition, the moderate-heavy and heavy drinkers had reported more work problems compare with the very light, light and moderate drinkers. However, the study shows that lower-level-drinking employees are accounted for a large proportion of problems regarding work performance than the heavier drinking groups.   43.        McFarlin, S., Fals-Stewart, W., Major, D. & Justice, E. (2001). Alcohol use and workplace aggression: An examination of perpetration and victimization. Journal of Substance Abuse, 13(3), 303 – 321.          The study examined the relationship between victimization from and perpetration of workplace aggression between the co-workers and its relationship with the frequency of alcohol use during the last year. The study used the data that have been gathered from the 300 civilian employees that were selected from the US population by telephone interview with the psychometrically sound measures. The hierarchical regression analyses were used in order to examine and analyze the relationship between alcohol use and the workplace aggression after controlling for the sociodemographic variables. The result shows that both percentages of the days of any drinking as well as the percentage of days of the heavy drinking during the prior year were related to victimization from verbal as well as physical aggression at work and perpetration of verbal and physical aggression at work.   44.        McGowant, R. & Thoreson, R. (1983). Employment factors in outpatient recovery of alcoholics: A multivariate study. Addictive Behaviors, 8, 345 – 351. The study shows the result of the investigations that were done in the Veterans Administration Medical Center in Lexington, Kentucky. All of the 175 subjects had a primary alcoholism were assigned to one of the three treatment group, where in the employed alcoholics were compare to unemployed alcoholics were associated with the treatment outcome in positive way.   45.        McLaughlin, D. (1992). A survey of the views of senior managers on the consumption of alcohol by staff at health authority social occasions. Health Education Journal, 51(1), 20 – 22.       The study was carried in the Oldman Health Authority that focuses in identifying the views of the managers on the issue of consumption of alcohol of the staff at health authority informal social occasions. The result showed that there were already considerable information social norms that govern the alcohol consumption at different parties and events, especially those that are related to the concerns of the staffs to maintain their professional image as well as responsibilities.   46.        Moore, S., Sikora, P. Grunberg, L. & Greenberg, E. (2007). Work stress and alcohol use: Examining the tension-reduction model as a function of worker’s parent’s alcohol use. Addictive Behavior, 32(12), 3114-3121.          This study focuses on identifying the groups that are more vulnerable to the tension-reduction drinking by examining if the drinking alcohol in response to the work stress changes as a function if the workers were raised in homes where in parents are abstained from alcohol; at least one parent drank non-problematically; at least one parent drank problematically; or both parents drank problematically. The study uses the longitudinal study with the population of 895. The result shows that a number of vital correlations were found for those respondents that reported that both of their parents are abstained from alcohol; few were found in for the groups where in one parent drank with or without alcohol problems.    47.        Moos, R. & Moos, B. (1998). The staff workplace and the quality and outcome of substance abuse treatment. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 59(1), 43-51.          The researchers analyze the connection between the staff work environment and the staff members’ belief regarding the treatment, the quality of the treatment environment, the involvement in the treatment and more importantly the self-help activities and improvement during the treatment. The data was gathered from 329 patient care staff in15 substance abuse treatment programs that reported the characteristics of their working environment as well as their belief regarding the treatment process. The result shows that those staffs in the supportive and goal-directed work environments were more likely to support the disease model beliefs as well as the 12-step orientation to the substance abuse treatment. Thus, patients in the said environments are participative.   48.        Mulia, N., Ye, Y., Zemore, S. & Greenfield, T. (2008). Social disadvantage, stress and alcohol use among black, Hispanic and white Americans: Findings from the 2005 U.S. National Alcohol Survey. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 69(6), 824-833.          The study focuses on one of the most important gap in the said subject, and that is the health effects of the social disadvantage on the majority populations towards the alcohol problems. The researchers analyze the social disadvantage as a source of stress and its connection with the use and problem of alcohol in the three largest racial or ethnic groups in the U.S. The data on the white, black and the Hispanic Americans of 6.631 were obtained via the report of U.S. National Alcohol Survey in 2005, with the use of telephone survey of adults ages 18 and above. Different social disadvantages were measured by poverty level, frequency of unfair treatment, racial or ethnic stigma consciousness and the cumulative disadvantage. The result shows that the blacks and the Hispanics shows a greater exposure to the social disadvantage than white, however the three ethic groups show that the exposure to disadvantage are connected with the drinking problems.   49.        Oddvar, A. (1973). The role of alcohol in fatal accidents among seamen. British Journal of Addiction, 68, 185 – 189. The author explained that alcohol is involved in 1/3 of the entire fatal accidents in Norwegian merchant seaman. The data was presented at the Third International Conference on Alcoholism and Addictions, Cardiff, in September 1970.   50.        Paschall, M., Ringwalt, C. & Flewelling, R. (2002). Explaining higher levels of alcohol use among working adolescents: An analysis of potential explanatory variables. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 63(2), 169 – 178. The study explained and showed the higher rates of alcohol use by observing the working adolescent compare to those that are not working. The data was gathered by in-home survey from 4,497 representatives who are 14 – 17 years old who participated in the 1998 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse or NHSDA. The multivariate logistic regression analyses were used in order to determine the relationship between work status and past-month alcohol use, heavy drinking would persist after adjusting the demographic characteristics and selected risk and protective factors in the community, family, school and the peer-individual domains. The result shows that higher rates of past-month alcohol use and heavy drinking were reported by working than nonworking adolescents.   51.        Pratt, O. & Tucker, M. (1989). Approaches to the Alcohol Problem in the Workplace. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 24(5), 453 – 464.          The authors of the study focuses on the main problem if alcohol or alcoholism in the workplace is identified as alcohol-related accidents, reduced work performance and loss of working time. The study also focuses on the heavy cost of the said problem for different industry. It had been able to show the historical perspective regarding the said problem and suggest that there are scopes for large savings from an effective campaign in order to reduce the different alcohol-related problems in the workplace.   52.        Richman, J., Shinsako, S., Rospenda, K., Flaherty, J. & Freels, S. (2002). Workplace harassment/abuse and alcohol-related outcomes: The mediating role of psychological distress. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 63(4), 412-419.          The author of the study focuses on the importance of tension-reduction or self-medication perspective regarding the issue of alcohol use and misuse. The study also explains that the role of the psychological distress plays in the process of mediating the relationship between harassing and abusive international experiences in the workplace as well as the changing alcohol use and misuse. The method that was used was mail survey that was completed by the university employees. The result shows that harassment and abuse predicted the drinking outcomes and the psychological distress, and focuses on the fact of relationship between harassment/abuse and drinking outcomes that are somewhat intervened by distress.   53.        Roberst, R. (1988). Hiccups in alcohol education. Health Education Journal, 47 (2 – 3), 73 – 76.          The article shows some of the problems that are related with the effectiveness of alcohol education. The author stated that consideration is considered as one of the most taken for granted area in the literature review regarding the subject. Thus, suggested that there must be an increase in the cognitive dissonance in the health educators’ own consumption of alcohol, historical aspects as well as the temperance movement.   54.        Scharamm, C. J. (Ed.) (1977). Alcoholism and Its Treatment in Industry. Baltimore: Hohn Hopkins.          The editor assembled different selected papers about the subject of alcoholism in the workplace. The said study is the product of the editor’s development of the teaching materials for the course The Problems of Work at the John Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health.   55.        Sheldon, M. (1986). How to tell if alcoholism treatment has worked: Assessing outcome studies. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 37, 555 – 556.          The author stated that if the objective diagnosis of alcoholism is not made, and if the data collected were not analyzed objectively, the process of determining the effectiveness of alcoholism treatment will be difficult.   56.        Smith, C., Roberts, J., Kelly, T. & Smith, E. (1989). People’s knowledge of alcohol – a workplace survey. Health Education Journal, 48(1), 33 – 35.          The author conducted the study by conducting a survey with the help of self-completion questionnaires about the factual knowledge of alcohol and its impact, before the education and training about alcohol. The result of the study shows that most of the people in that particular work-force do not have enough knowledge regarding alcohol.   57.        Sonnenstuhl, W. (1996). Working Sober: The Transformation of an Occupational Drinking Culture. New York: Cornell University Press.          Most of American believes that workers do not drink on the job, and if they do, it is due to the fact that they are suffering from alcoholism and it is not connected with the occupational expectations and satisfaction. The author disagrees with the said notion, instead he believe that there are some organizational and occupational cultures that encourage heavy drinking. In addition, it describes how drinking is considered as the standard in some of occupation by showing how the New York bridge as well as tunnel workers, together with their respective union had changed in order to remove the said problem. Thus, the author concluded that the sense of community that motivates the drinking can sometimes inspire workers to break the said pattern and work somber.   58.        Sterud, T., Hem, E., Ekeberg, O. & Lau, B. (2007). Occupational stress and alcohol use: A study of two nationwide samples of operational police and ambulance, personnel in Norway. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 68(6), 896-904.          The police and the ambulance personnel are widely believed to have the high prevalence of excessive alcohol consumption, however, the empirical basis for the said theory or assumption is limited or nothing at al. the authors assessed the association of the alcohol consumption, burnout and the job stressor with the drinking to cope and the neuroticism as the important factors in the police and ambulance services. The study used the comprehensive nationwide questionnaire survey of 2,372 police and 1,096 ambulance personnel in the operational duty. The questionnaire was consists of Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test or AUDIT, the Maslach Burnout Inventory, the Job Stress Survey and the Basic Character Inventory. The result shows that with the modified AUDIT score f 6 or more, the prevalence for men was 17.7% for police personnel and 16.6% for ambulance personnel. On the other hand, the prevalence for women was 9.1% for police personnel and 7.4% for ambulance personnel.   59.        Streufert, S., Pogash, R., Roache, J., Walter, S., Gingrich, D., Landis, R., Lonardi, L. & Kantner, A. (1994). Alcohol and managerial performance. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 55(2), 230-238.          This study investigated on the effects of alcohol intoxication at .05 and .10 breath alcohol concentration with other validated indicators of the performance of the manager using the double-blind crossover placebo-controlled simulation design. 48 managers spend their 2 days handling quasi-experimental tasks that are permitted realistic managerial decision-making under the normal and emergency condition. The result showed that the speed and frequency of the action of the manager were affected by alcohol at .10 level but not on .05 level. Thus, the strategy and planning lessen in both levels.   60.        Trice, H. M. & Roman. P. M. (1987). Spirit and Demons at Work: Alcohol and Other Drugs on the Job. 2nd edn. Ithaca, New York.: New York School of Industrial Relations, Cornell University. The book focuses on the job behaviors of alcoholics and other drug abusers. The authors of the study use the constructive confrontation strategy as their tool in motivating people into help. This book is considered as vital in the said subject and field due to the fact that it shows an excellent analysis and redesign of the programs that offers alternatives and different new approaches towards the female employees.   PROS AND CONS OF NULL HYPOTHESIS             Null hypothesis represents no relationship between the variables that are being studied. Thus it acts as both the starting point as well as the benchmarking against which the actual outcomes of the study can be measured (Salkind, 2006, pp. 138 – 140). It acts as the starting due to the fact that it is the state of affairs that is accepted as true in the absence of any other information. On the other hand, it helps to provide benchmark against which observed outcomes can be compare to be see if the said differences are due to some other important factor (Salkind, 2006, p. 141).             As a result, it helps to define a range within which any observed differences between groups can be attributed chance or are due to something other than chance (Salkind, 2006, p. 142).             The main advantage of Null Hypothesis is that it failure to reject the null hypothesis can help to develop and test alternative hypothesis that can help to broaden the study. Furthermore it is also helpful in testing the importance of differences in terms of treatment as well as control groups. Furthermore, although in may statement of null hypothesis there the directionality cannot be seen, however, it is opposite, in most of the cases, with the help of statistical theory, it can help to allow the formulation of the tests procedure in order to be simplified in order to make sure that the test is equal to the testing for the given identity (Fisher, 1966).             The main disadvantage or cons of null hypothesis is that it is boring, compare with alternative hypothesis. This is due to the fact that it focuses on the statement that a person wants to test, thus it shows that idea that things are the same as each other or the same as the theoretical expectation (McDonald 2008).             In addition, many researchers as well as reviewers see accepting the null as a failure of the experiment. It has an image of very poor science as accepting or rejecting any hypothesis is a positive result. Thus, even if the null is not refuted, the world of science has learned something new. Strictly speaking, the word failure should only be applied to errors in terms of experimental design as well as incorrect initial assumption (Experiment Resources 2008).     References   Fisher, R.A. (1966). The design of experiments. 8th edn. Hafner:Edinburgh.   McDonald, J. H. (2008). Handbook of Biological Statistics. Sparky House Publishing Baltimore, Maryland, Retrieved December 3, 2008, from http://udel.edu/~mcdonald/stathyptesting.html   Null Hypothesis 2008, Experiment Resources, Retrieved December 3, 2008, from http://www.experiment-resources.com/null-hypothesis.html   Salkind, N. (2006). Statistics for People Who (Think They) Hate Statistics: The Excel Edition. SAGE.   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Alcoholism in the Workplace: Annotated Bibliography and Pros/Cons of Null Hypothesis

Alcoholism in the Workplace: Annotated Bibliography 1. Alternative method in the treatment of alcoholism: The united techn...