Introduction
Competencies refer to the fundamental knowledge owned by the firm. To be distinctive they are not confined to functional domains but cut across the firm and its organizational boundaries. Competitive advantage can come from a focus upon key competencies. Capabilities, meanwhile, reflect an organization’s ability to use its competencies (Lowson 2002). Capabilities represent the firm’s ‘collective tacit knowledge of how to initiate or respond to change that is built into an organization’s processes, procedures and systems, and that is embedded in models of behavior, informal networks and personal relationships. It is noted that capabilities and competencies are dynamic and constantly changing. The pattern of decisions tends to be of a medium to long-term nature and supports both the core capabilities and competencies of the company, and how it uses resources and technologies to provide sustainable competitive advantage in the future. There have been many historic changes in organizational theory over the twentieth century. Some can be directly assimilated as changes in operations strategy (Lowson 2002).
It is the unique architecture of each operations strategy that provides an essential strategic contribution to achieve sustainable competitive advantage. From this people can speculate that organizations will have not one, but many operations strategies. Each may have common components, but each has a unique and individual emphasis that is dictated by a number of factors such as trading partners, supply system configuration and demand behaviors. The building blocks of an operations strategy can be viewed as forming a composition matrix that fuses them together as a reaction to the demand and supply system circumstances. The operations strategy is then contingent upon its particular circumstances. It is a factor that has considerable benefits to its subsequent implementation. The mission of an operations strategy will outline and define its overall direction. The mission must also proclaim those areas of excellence and core competencies that are capable of securing competitive advantage (Lowson 2002). Companies cannot survive without an effective competitive strategy; an effective competitive strategy gives a company an easier chance of attaining its goal with lesser focus on the problems they have. Competitive strategy cannot be acquired if a firm doesn’t have the best managers.
The managers are the ones that make use and at times improvise strategies to gain competitiveness over their rivals. The managers have the responsibility to ensure that the strategies used by the firm are still within the needs of the environment. For practicing managers topics such as Organizational behavior, individual behavior, personality, perception, values and attitudes, Motivation in organizations and Communication and leadership are important. These topics and concepts provide assistance to managers as they ensure that the organization will work well and perform according to what was expected of it. These topics will also create an internal environment that works well together due to them having a good relationship. The paper will discuss how the selected topics are useful to a practicing manager.
A. Organizational behavior, individual behavior, personality, perception, values and attitudes
The changes in behavior
Organizations are downsizing, restructuring, merging, and reinventing themselves. Mid-level management layers are diminishing. Functions are being eliminated and replaced by online automation and networked infrastructures. Knowledge workers with technological and people skills must manage processes and themselves in cyberspace with speed, efficiency, and accuracy. These and other changes continue to impact the relationships, rights, and obligations between employee stakeholders and organizations. Organizations saw their workforce as permanent, and tried to build loyalty among employees by making financial investments in training and by providing guaranteed long-term employment (Sims 2003). Employees were committed to the organization and expected steady advancement up the corporate ladder. The seeds of change are taking root, and with these changes new social contracts are developing between organizations and their members. No longer is the traditional social contract that once existed between the organization and the employee valid. Changes like those cited thus far have profoundly changed the ways in which organizations and their employees relate (Sims 2003).
They want employers who provide them with opportunities, recognize their accomplishments, and communicate openly and honestly. These workforce changes have contributed to a newly emerging social contract between employers and employees. Failure to understand and effectively manage the rights of employees can create many ethical dilemmas for organizations and further strain the social contract with employees (Sims 2003). Many social investors are concerned about the ethics, social responsibility, and reputation of organizations in which they invest; and the growing groups of brokers, financial planners, portfolio managers, asset management, and mutual funds have made themselves available to help investors evaluate investments and purchase stock in ethical organizations for their social impacts (Sims 2003). As the world changes so thus the situation in the workplace changes particularly the attitudes of personnel. The personnel of this generation have changed the way they beliefs with regard to employment and opportunities. Their beliefs are focused on achieving what is best for them rather than what’s best for a company.
The personnel of this generation are more peculiar on opportunities rather than loyalty. They would rather go to different jobs that provide better monetary opportunity than stay in a job that can help them learn new things. The employees of this generation have undergone significant changes in the way they think. They cannot be taken for granted because they make sure that every aspect of the company works fairly well in their favor. This causes dissension between the company and the employees and it causes the company to deliver products that clients don’t want to have. To solve such change in the workplace companies need to have an effective hr group that will use strategies such as motivation, satisfaction and commitment so that the employees will not easily change jobs and be a hindrance for the company’s success.
HR practices and its role in a company
Successful HR professionals will be those who can align their organizational HR practices with the unique demands of team-based organizational structures. In addition to recognizing and adapting the assumptions on which they base their practices, HR professionals must also modify those practices to support teams. The practices to be modified cluster in five areas: recruitment and selection; task design; training; evaluation; and compensation (Korman & Kraut 1999).The second set of practices that must be modified relate to task design. Effective teams are designed around the tasks they perform Training constitutes a third set of practice modifications for effective team implementation. There is often a mistaken belief that people who are highly educated have the basic skills to work effectively in team settings. In fact, highly specialized individuals are often used to working alone and may lack some of the basic interpersonal skills necessary for collaboration (Korman & Kraut 1999).
Training programs designed for interpersonal skills in teams take one of two approaches that includes traditional classroom instruction in which a lecturer delivers material about techniques or strategies for working in teams and creative off-site team-building sessions in which teams participate in athletic, artistic, or competitive activities unrelated to their actual day-to-day responsibilities (Korman & Kraut 1999).A fourth set of practices that must be modified involves evaluation. If organizations wish to motivate teamwork, they must incorporate teamwork into their appraisal systems. It is important that the appraisal system not only reward good team players but also discourage behaviors that are not conducive to team effectiveness. An organization-specific job analysis should be conducted to determine the precise nature of the behavioral and performance measures to be included in the appraisal form for each individual team member. A final set of HR practices that should be examined when implementing teams pertains to compensation. Good practices for rewarding team performance require good processes for defining what the performance should be and for measuring and evaluating the performance (Korman & Kraut 1999).
The HR practices dictate the performance of the employees. An HR practice that is based on proper governance provides good employees that any company can rely upon. The role of the HR is to make sure that the duty free staff will still listen and follow the changes initiated by the company. Different kinds of companies make use of human resource management approach to manage their employees. These companies make use of training partnership. This kind of partnership helps in solving HR problems; it also improves the performance of the employees. Through this strategy the company gets to have lesser problems with the personnel and it helps the company improve its relation with the employees, give better products and services to clients and achieve the different goals and objectives they have. The human resource practices play a big part in improving the performance of employees. If the HR practices are beneficial to employees this increases their morale and it transforms into better performance and in the end success for the company.
Welfare of employees
The argument that welfare work was a business proposition, not charity, shifted responsibility from the shoulders of the individual entrepreneur to the more abstract entity of the modern corporation. Welfare work took shape as company- or plant-wide policy rather than as special favors granted on a case-by-case basis at the employer’s discretion. Whereas nineteenth-century employers had exercised benevolent paternalism as isolated individuals, those who engaged in welfare work participated in a national movement that defined labor relations as an essential management responsibility. A few firms adopted employment stabilization as a conscious part of their welfare programs. Welfare managers used their understanding of the relationship between home and work lives to argue for shorter hours as well. Although higher wages, steady employment, and shorter hours were deemed essential, welfare advocates never believed that these alone could solve the labor problem (Mandell 2002).
Welfare advocates offered workers a broad agenda of programs designed to inculcate the middle-class work ethic and foster a desire for a middle-class standard of living. Of the two strategies, economic and cultural, the latter proved to be the most popular among welfare advocates and came to dominate the actual practice of welfare work (Mandell 2002).Two factors account for this development. Most obviously, employers resisted both the challenge to their authority and the costs associated with raising wages, stabilizing employment, and shortening hours. Hired welfare workers generally reinforced their employers’ preference for cultural strategies over economic ones. On a practical level this minimized the potential for conflict between welfare workers and their employers. It focused the welfare worker’s energies in an arena where she, rather than her employer, could claim expertise teaching and enforcing proper standards of conduct. Welfare workers supported decisions to charge all expenditures for employee welfare to a single welfare account. There was little dispute that some features, such as libraries and company bands, should be charged to welfare work. However, features that touched production phases of a firm’s operations could generate controversy (Mandell 2002).
While welfare workers placed better lighting, ventilation, and clean drinking water high on their list of priorities, these often required structural improvements that were traditionally charged to production departments. Production managers naturally had little interest in seeing welfare managers make decisions that affected their departmental costs. Welfare workers, on the other hand, recognized that if such costs were included in their own budgets, they would have greater control over employee welfare, as well as preclude some of the opposition from line managers (Mandell 2002). An important thing that business owners should be concerned of is the welfare of the employees. Employees who are properly cared for can work well and they can be an asset of the company. They perform better and help the company in achieving its various goals and objectives. Employees who are properly cared for can be competitive with employees of rival firms.
Importance of organizational behavior to managers
The behavior of people in the organization they belong to depends on different factors. These factors can be environmental, physical, emotional or psychological. The different factors play a part on improving or worsening people’s behavior but it still depends on the situation a person is in. Some people may be pleasant to work while others may be hard headed. Each of these factors contributes into bringing benefits or disadvantages to a company. Cultural Diversity depicts the variety of cultures and traditions in a specific community or workplace. Cultural diversity provides both benefits and problems to the workplace. It may create productive actions but it can cause divisions in the company. Cultural diversity provides assistance in making sure that a company can cope up with clients.
The diversity of personnel helps in observing the qualities of different people. It provides a better understanding of why certain person acts in a certain way. The behavior of personnel and their diversity helps the practicing manager to devise various strategies that will enable him/her to bring out his/her potential. This would prove helpful for the organization to reach its goals. The behavior of the personnel and their diversity also helps the manager to determine what kind of personnel for a specific task in the firm. The practicing manager can make use of such information to put better persons to a specific job. This can increase the productivity of the personnel since he/she has the characteristics that fit well the job given to him/her.
Websites relating to organizational behavior
One website that relates to organizational behavior is http://www.nwlink.com. This website which was accessed on January 16, 2008 explains organizational behavior and its effect on an organization. The website discusses about the elements of organizational behavior and the models of organizational behavior. The website discusses about the impact of individualization on an organization. It also discusses about the use of the knowledge about the personnel’s behavior to the development of the organization. Moreover the website also discuss about the benefits of enriching a job and means for companies to enrich their job. Lastly the website talks about change and how it is related to organizational behavior and why it is important for change to be in a step by step design.
The other website that has something to do with organizational behavior is www.wikipedia.com. This website which was accessed on January 16, 2008 provided information on organizational studies and its history. The website also provided a discussion on the current state of the field of organizational studies and organizational behavior. The website discussed about the different methods used in organizational studies and behavior. Moreover the website discussed about systems framework and how it is related to organizational studies and organizational behavior. Lastly the website discussed about the experts and authors that contributed to the not only to the enrichment but to the strengthening of the concept of organizational studies and organizational behavior.
B. Motivation in organizations
Managers who want their employees to participate in performance growth and development plans need to recognize that employees have reasons for everything they do. Managers should realize that employees choose to perform the way they do because of some internal or external motivation. Employees participate when the goal they have chosen to pursue is attainable. To ensure greater participation, managers must understand this simple motivational principle. Employee motivation can be greatly enhanced when managers understand the seven assumptions that underlie change behavior (Boughton, Gilley & Maycunich1999). First, employees are motivated to change their behavior when given clear, sharply focused objectives. Employees are not encouraged to participate in change activities when they are written in ambiguous, immeasurable terms. Managers who help identify skill gaps and work closely with their employees in the construction of performance objectives that are clear and precise have a much better opportunity to enhance employee growth and development (Boughton, Gilley & Maycunich1999)
.Second, employees need to thoroughly understand how to perform their jobs correctly. Employees need to know not only what to do but also how to accomplish the task. Any attempt to motivate an employee to change without adhering to this basic assumption may be counterproductive. Most employees want to perform their jobs correctly. Failing to tell them exactly what to do and how to do it will serve as a demotivator. Third, employees are more likely to change their performance behaviors when they are given opportunities to participate in problem solving and decision-making activities that directly affect them (Boughton, Gilley & Maycunich1999). Employees need to be given the authority to make decisions about how to improve their performance. Fourth, change requires personal commitment for action, which obligates managers to secure employee buy-in prior to the creation of growth and development plans. In this way, employees own the learning acquisition and transfer process. Fifth, managers must clearly communicate positive and negative rewards that are linked directly to performance improvement. Care must be taken when identifying rewards to ensure that correct behavior is rewarded rather than punished (Boughton, Gilley & Maycunich1999).
Sixth, managers must demonstrate patient, persistent follow-through when providing positive feedback and reinforcement. Seventh, managers need to be realistic regarding the types of rewards offered, while acting within their discretion and authority. It is counterproductive to offer promotions, merit pay, bonuses, or other material rewards if they cannot be granted to employees. False hopes or expectations lead to distrust and the deterioration of synergistic relationships (Boughton, Gilley & Maycunich1999). To motivate employees, companies should first know the behaviors of employees and why it changes. By doing this companies can know how to approach a certain employees and what motivational strategy can be used towards them. This will lead to better performance of the employees and a better relationship amongst themselves.
Two Factor Theory of motivation
Satisfaction
Judgments of job satisfaction reflect conscious attitudes toward one’s job. Although job satisfaction measures are influenced by the conditions that exist in one’s job, they are also influenced by one’s affective disposition and overall life satisfaction. However, the moderate correlation between life satisfaction and job satisfaction does not preclude job satisfaction measures from providing unique information about an employee’s attitudes toward his or her job, attitudes that may have distinct implications for productivity beyond the effects of life satisfaction or affective well-being. Positive affect, negative affect, life satisfaction, and job satisfaction are not simply attitudes about one’s life and one’s job. These components of happiness and well-being play a functional role in the choices that people make and the behaviors in which they engage (Barrick, Ryan & Schmitt 2003).However, the specific impact that these differences will have on worker productivity likely depends on the nature of the worker’s task. Happy workers may be more sociable, but whether this benefits productivity depends on the precise nature of their task (Barrick, Ryan & Schmitt 2003).
In addition, happy workers may be creative and efficient when performing complicated tasks, but this creativity and efficiency may come at the expense of caution and vigilance. Job satisfaction is an attitude, not an affective state. As an attitude, it is best conceptualized as an evaluation of one’s job, influenced in part by affective events that have occurred at work and, as a source of error, the mood one is in at the time of making the evaluation. In addition, most measures of job satisfaction have a large cognitive component (Barrick, Ryan & Schmitt 2003). Job satisfaction covers the ability of a company to maintain a good relationship with the company’s employees and provide them the opportunity to do something they want at the same time something that will give benefits to the company. Job satisfaction can be attributed to the different emotional things encountered by an employee on the workplace.
Job satisfaction entails how the employee feels about the company and how he/she acts in his/her everyday office experience. When employees are satisfied with their job they have no reason to misbehave and cause trouble in the workplace. They also have lesser time to spend since they like what they are doing and want to contribute the best product and service. When employees are satisfied they focus entirely on their work and think less about loitering or doing nothing and wasting precious office time. Various companies make sure that their employees are satisfied with their job, they do this by using various means to determine the feelings of their employees on the job they have. They have various meetings with employees to get feedback on how the employees are doing and what are the things they have about their work. Managers should try their best to change the employee’s feelings and misconceptions about the job, when they are still not satisfied the job the manager then has to try to change their job position and responsibilities to give them a better outlook and give them enough space.
Psychological growth
Often psychological growth has been viewed in terms of a systematic progression through a series of stages, which occur in a predetermined order, which all people pass through, and each one of which takes the person nearer to the maturity represented by adult functioning. Many people have tended to assume that development proceeds through cumulative accretion in which each advance grows out of, and builds upon, the one preceding it. It is thought that development is based on slow, continuous growth, involving a strong connectedness between the past and the present and a preservation of earlier structures (Rutter, M & Rutter, M 1993). There is the view of development as a process moving steadily forward through progressive building, with change involving psychological advance at each point. That is not how the brain itself grows; a major part of the developmental process involves loss of neurons, a loss that enables function to be improved through selectivity and not just by more of the same. It is clear that the same applies to psychological functioning (Rutter, M & Rutter, M 1993).
It is one thing to accept the crucial nature of the transformation and it is quite another to suppose that it has no connection with what has gone before and that it wipes clean the tape of past skills and experiences. So far as the lack of connection with prior phases of development is concerned, the mere fact that a new skill creates a transformation does not necessarily mean that its development has nothing to do with earlier functions. It must be accepted that later skills sometimes have little or no connection with earlier ones (Rutter, M & Rutter, M 1993). Psychopharmacology in no way obviates the need for psychotherapy. The goal of pharmacotherapy is consistent with the goals of psychotherapy, which involve symptom relief in the context of personality development. Although pharmacotherapy may be more effective than psychotherapy in the relief of symptoms in many major psychiatric disorders, medication cannot provide the vessel for the process of character transformations (Battista, Chinen & Scotton 1996).
It is possible to distinguish between the eradication of debilitating symptoms and the enhancement of personal growth. Although the experience of pain, whether psychological or physical, can be a powerful motivator for personal change, its persistence beyond a certain point can retard it (Battista, Chinen & Scotton 1996). Additionally, painful states can become a part of a debilitating, unconscious attachment much the same way that pleasurable states can. It becomes a challenge to the trans personally oriented clinician to determine whether the level of pain induced by an experience of altered consciousness represents such an attachment or whether the person can actively work with the pain therapeutically toward further psychological growth (Battista, Chinen & Scotton 1996). Employees cannot be easily motivated if they have no psychological growth. Psychological growth comes from many years of experience by the employees. It takes more years for maturity to be evident and promote positive changes to an employee.
Importance of motivation in organizations to managers
Motivation in organizations gives practicing managers an easier way to make their subordinates perform better. When employees are motivated the mangers doesn’t have to push them to perform better. Motivation in organizations helps practicing mangers to be better in their field. When the employees perform well due to them being motivated well, managers can easily do their jobs and they can improve their grasp in of the company. Motivation makes the team effective since the focus of the members will be on the goals of their group and not their complains and issues with the company. Motivation can also create a drive for the team to perform better and do what’s best for the company. Lastly motivation in organizations can help the manager set newer and bolder goals for the firm. When the subordinates perform better managers are given the notion that it is time for the company to have bolder goals that can help the company have better advantage over their rivals.
Websites relating to motivation in organizations
A website that relates to motivation in organizations is http://users.dickinson.edu. This website was viewed on January 17, 2008. This website discussed about motivation, different theories related to it and the criticism to each of the theories. Another website that relates to motivation in organizations is http://courses.washington.edu. This website was also viewed on January 17, 2008. The website discussed about the nature of motivation, the history of motivation and how to enhance motivation in organizations.
C. Communication and leadership
Communication is one of the most dominant activities occurring in any work setting. The need to study, understand, and effectively use organizational communication has been, for many individuals, an after-the-fact enlightenment. As such, individuals in various occupations refer to the inability of others to communicate well, the lack of listening skills displayed by their colleagues, or the unwillingness of subordinates to follow instructions. At times people contend that other people fail to communicate, and they are almost mystified that others do not hear them in the manner they intended. Over the years, experts in management theory have preached the need for improved communication. Unfortunately, being aware of the need for improved communication does not always translate into better understanding or use (Harris 2002).
Communication’s role in the examination of organizational crisis roughly parallels the development of traditional approaches to crisis management and the relatively recent emergence of theoretically grounded views. Traditionally, communication largely public relations, issue management, community relations, and media relations is associated with post crisis management and response. This includes disseminating risk mitigation information, such as warnings, to limit harm; communicating with various agencies so that logistics are coordinated; providing clarification of cause, extent of harm, and blame; responding to accusations of wrongdoing; and generally managing the unified public response to the crisis (Seeger, Sellnow & Ulmer 2003).
In many organizations, communication practitioners, along with legal affairs and operations departments, are given the responsibility of creating, maintaining, and communicating the crisis-management plan. This includes media training for crisis spokespersons, establishing and maintaining both internal and external crisis-communication channels, and developing contingent responses and messages for anticipated crisis scenarios (Seeger, Sellnow & Ulmer 2003). With proper communication strategies the organization can provide better services and they can create better products. Communication helps in providing different ideas and suggestions on how to improve service and how products can be made better. Communication also helps in determining the different concerns and flaws on the product and service. This will lead to corrections and improvements for the product and service.
Leadership can affect the organization and the way it moves to achieve its goal. With poor leadership and leadership styles the company tends to have a harder chance to achieve its goals. The leadership styles vary upon the characteristics of different individual in a firm. A person’s leadership style may not conform to the criteria of the subordinates. In using leadership styles one must first know how to influence the subordinates so that together they can work to achieve their goal. Leaders still have to be equipped with communication skills for them to help a company achieve its goal. Leadership and communication skills help in directing the company into a better path.
Importance of communication and leadership to managers
Communication and leadership is an important skill needed by managers. These concepts help the managers to maintain order in the organization. With leadership and communication skills the managers can ease any internal problems and they can make sure that the subordinates stay in line. Communication and leadership helps the managers to analyze the problems of the company and find immediate solutions to it. Through communication skills the manager can determine the cause of dismal performance by the subordinates. Through leadership skills the manager can find solution for the dismal performance by the subordinates. Lastly communication and leadership helps the manager determine actions that can counter threats from competitors. Communication skills give the manager a way to know possible threats from competitors. Leadership skills give the manager ideas on how to counter these threats.
Websites relating to communication and leadership
One website that relates to organizational communication is www.businessperform.com. This website was viewed on January 17 2008. This website discussed about what poor communication would bring to the organization. It also discussed about the communication needs of employees. A website that relates to leadership in organizations is www.managementhelp.org. This website was viewed on January 17 2008. This website discussed about the traits that leaders should have.
Conclusion
For practicing managers’ topics such as Organizational behavior, individual behavior, personality, perception, values and attitudes, Motivation in organizations and Communication and leadership are important. These topics and concepts provide assistance to managers as they ensure that the organization will work well and perform according to what was expected of it. The diversity of personnel helps in observing the qualities of different people. The behavior of personnel and their diversity helps the practicing manager to devise various strategies that will enable him/her to bring out his/her potentials. The behavior of the personnel and their diversity also helps the manager to determine what kind of personnel for a specific task in the firm. Motivation in organizations helps practicing mangers to be better in their field.
When the employees perform well due to them being motivated well, managers can easily do their jobs and they can improve their grasp of the company. Motivation makes the team effective since the focus of the members will be on the goals of their group and not their complains and issues with the company. Motivation can also create a drive for the team to perform better and do what’s best for the company. Communication and leadership helps the managers to analyze the problems of the company and find immediate solutions to it. Through communication skills the manager can determine the cause of dismal performance by the subordinates. Through leadership skills the manager can find solution for the dismal performance by the subordinate
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