Studies have found that between 25 percent and 90 percent of street children use psychoactive substances of some kind. The word substance describes any psychoactive material which when consumed affects the way people feel, think, see, taste, smell, hear, or behave. A psychoactive substance can be a medicine or an industrial product, such as glue. Some substances are legal such as approved medicines, alcohol, and cigarettes, and others are illegal, such as heroin and cannabis.
The types of psychoactive substances street children use can be many and varied and it may be difficult to determine what substances they are using. Substances which are sold on the market can be identified by their generic name. This is the standard name used throughout the world. However, some substances are marketed under various names known as trade names and others have ‘street names’. Some of the substances that street children use are:
· Alcohol – a depressant which inhibits or decreases some aspects of central nervous system activity
· Nicotine – a stimulant; that is any substance which activates, enhances or increases central nervous system activity
· Opioids – substances in this group may act as analgesics and depressants
· Hallucinogens – Hallucinogenic substances can alter a person’s mood, the way the person perceives his or her surroundings and the way the person experiences his or her own body
· Cannabis – the cannabis plant grows in many parts of the world
· Hypnosedatives – the drugs in this group are made synthetically and do not occur naturally
· Stimulants – this group of substances activate, enhance or increase central nervous system activity
· Inhalants – include a wide range of easily available products including aerosols, volatile solvents and gases
Substances can be used in many different ways. They may be:
· Chewed, swallowed or dissolved slowly in the mouth
· Placed on a mucous membrane
· Rubbed into the skin
· Injected under the skin or into a vein or muscle with a needle
· Smoked or inhaled through the mouth or nose, or inhaled by placing a bag over the head known as bagging
The way the substance is take also influences how fast the substance reaches the brain or other organs. Injecting a substance is especially dangerous because of the risks of infection that are carried through the blood. In particular, sharing needles or other injecting equipment and the way the substance is prepared can spread HIV, hepatitis B and C, and other infections because of contaminations with infected blood.
Any substance can be harmful to a human body if taken in large enough doses, too frequently or in impure form. The health effects of substances can occur immediately or in the long-term. The effects are influenced by the dose, the method of administration as well as whether the substance is used with another drug.
There are different contributing factors in the development of substance abuse. According to Grabowski and Vandenbos (1992) people develop addictive behaviors through the influence of biological, psychological and socio-cultural factors. These factors are believed to contribute to substance abuse and dependence.
Biological Factors
In determining an individual’s vulnerability or resistance to substance effects and the associated risk of abuse, biological factors are important. There are different researches and documents that points to a person’s genetic makeup as one of the contributing factors of substance abuse. For example, it has been found out that the son of an alcoholic is more likely to develop alcoholism than the son of a non-alcoholic (Crabbe et al 1985; Goodwin 1990; Newlin and Thompson 1991). However, it is also claimed that biological vulnerability or a genetic predisposition for substance abuse may not cause a problem unless the person at risk is exposed to an environment that facilitates or brings out the problem behavior (Grabowski and Vandenbos 1992). According to Zucker (1987) exposure to high-risk environments may add up to a person’s biological vulnerability and genetic predisposition.
Aside from biological vulnerability, the impact of substance use on a person’s body chemistry and physiology is also seen as a contributing factor is the development of abusive behavior towards substances. Researches, such as those conducted by Hunt (1990) and Tabakoff and Hoffman (1991) revealed that drugs that immediately affect a person’s body chemistry have a higher addiction potential than those that have delayed effects.
Psychological Factors
One’s personal beliefs, expectations, and attributions about the effects of different substance affect substance abuse. Researchers believe that there are certain personality traits that can be associated with substance abuse. These include sensation seeking, impulsivity, and negative effect (Cox 1988). One important psychological element is motivation as it affects the desire for initial drug use that could lead to problems and the desire to change one’s pattern of abuse or dependence (Cox 1990). Personality trait is also a significant factor. Zukerman (1979) identified sensation seeking as a trait that may be common on substance abusers (cited in Peterson 2002, p. 32). Other personality traits that are associated with substance abuse are antisocial personality characteristics and personality disorder, risk taking, novelty seeking, reward dependency and lack of harm avoidance (Otter and Martin 1996 cited in Peterson 2002, p. 32).
Social Factors
Social deprivation is a term generally used to incorporate poverty, inadequate housing and living conditions, and constrained access to education, transport, work and recreation. Deprivation can be a factor in substance abuse. Deprivation may be related to age of first use, progression to dependence, intravenous use and dangerous use, health and social complications of use and to criminal association (Peterson 2002).
Family and peer pressures can increase or decrease the risk of substance abuse. According to Jacob (1987), the risk of developing substance abuse among people who were raised in a dysfunctional family setting, especially those who were exposed to drug and alcohol problems is high. Moreover, children who experienced physical and sexual abuse have a high potential to develop substance abuse. Adolescents are influenced by their peers. Because of peer influence and social pressure, many adolescents engage in risk-taking behaviors. These adolescents run a high risk of committing various antisocial and delinquent acts, including substance abuse (White et al 1990). Lack of parental supervision and the lack of alternative recreational activities further increase the risk of substance abuse (Hawkins et al 1992). Gang membership and participation is also seen as a risk for substance abuse. Society as a whole serves to promote reliance on alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs as an access to an exciting life. In addition, the media is also seen as a contributing factor to the growing problem in substance abuse. Advertisements tend to glamorize and sensationalize drinking, smoking and drug use in the eyes of young viewers.
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