How does social influence work in effective persuasion for Internet-based negotiations?
Introduction
Social influence constitutes an important aspect of negotiation because of its key role in persuasion. First, social relationships emerge during negotiations. Social relationships can be classified into three categories involving individuals, dyads and networks. Individual relationships cover the manner that judgments and preferences of the individual parties involved in the negotiation are affected by the social context. Dyadic relationships involve the manner that social relationships arising within dyads affect the processes and outcomes of the negotiation. Different perspectives may arise regarding a similar topic on an individual or dyad perspective so that the social relationships arising during the negotiation processes and dynamics of social influences determine outcomes. Network relationships cover the selection of partners or actors during the negotiations so that during the negotiation process, the parties usually prefer to group with the people they know instead of looking for new allies if this means incurring the cost of having better partners.[1]
Second, egocentrism intervenes in negotiation because the judgments of the negotiators are not necessarily objective. This is because the negotiating parties tend to favor perspectives or views that favor their interests reflecting motivational bias or egocentrism. In addition, parties also exhibit recall bias by remembering only facts in the contexts that are more favorable to them. As such, with greater egocentrism arising during the negotiation process, the more difficult it is for the parties to arrive at a consensus. Social influence could occur through the egocentric perspectives that define the manner that negotiating parties select partners and manipulate the other party during the negotiation process to forward their interests.[2]
Third, motivated illusions arise during the negotiations since the parties have the tendency to see themselves and their environment more favorably that what appears in reality. People have the tendency to view their relative competencies as better than their counterparts during the negotiations so that this results to unrealistic self-evaluations. During the negotiations, a party exhibiting motivated illusions wields social influence with the expectation that special attributes would draw the other party to concede. During the negotiation process, successful parties tend to overestimate their competencies relative to the abilities of their opponents while unsuccessful negotiations are attributed to the lack of cooperation and unethical bargaining behavior of the other parties.[3]
Lastly, emotions intervene during the negotiation process since the moods or attitudes of the negotiating parties influence strategies. Positive moods of the negotiators are linked to the greater tendency to employ a cooperative strategy and encourage greater effort towards integrative outcomes. Negative attitudes are likely not to be able to objectively assess the interests and perspectives of their opponents resulting to greater difficulties in the negotiation process and lower gains. Moods and attitudes also influence the nature and extent of social manipulations that arise during the negotiation process. Emotions influence how relationships develop because this creates a possible divide between what people think and what they want to do.[4]
Social influence operates in persuading parties during the negotiation process through the three processes of compliance, identification and internalization. Social influences occur with compliance as the outcome with a party capitalizing on means in order to control or limit the choice of behavior of the other party. Social influence applies through the process of identification by one party relying on attractiveness as a means of delineating role expectations. Social influence unravels through the process of internalization with one party utilizing credibility in order to influence the consensus during the negotiation process. [5] It is through these processes that social influence unfolds is persuading opposing parties during the negotiation process.
However, the role that social influence plays during the negotiation process as explained have been made in the context of face-to-face negotiations where the parties are able to observe the attitudes and behavior of their opponents as bases for making judgments on counter strategies. Internet-based negotiations creates a different negotiation context or environment for the parties since online negotiations usually do not involve any visual links so that the negotiating parties rely on the communications expressed in the context of the purpose of the organization, the interests of the other party, and the expected outcomes[6]. Social influence in Internet-based negotiations constitutes the focus of the discussions in the literature review.
Literature Review
Koeszegi, Pesendorfer and Sabine[7] studied the impact of gender as a social influence during negotiations. In doing so, three hypotheses were determined. The first hypothesis is that gender has a significant influence on the behavior of the parties during electronic negotiations with women preferring to apply an integrative strategy and men preferring a distributive strategy. The second hypothesis is that the composition of dyads during the negotiation mediates the impact of gender during the electronic negotiations. In the case of mixed dyads, women tend to lean towards distributive strategy compared to women-only dyads while men tend to exhibit the integrative strategy in mixed dyads than in men-only dyads. The third hypothesis is that relationships between or among negotiators links the impact of gender during the negotiation process. In the case of women, there is no difference in their negotiation strategy regardless of whether they know their partners or not while in the case of men, there is a greater tendency to deviate from the distributive strategy if they are familiar with their negotiating partners. Testing these hypotheses through the experiment method was intended to determine the role and the importance of the role of gender in Internet-based negotiations.
The experiment involved a 2 x 3 experimental design for the buyer-seller simulated negotiation. The negotiating parties represented VanDairy, an association of farmers, and Pharmco, a pharmaceutical firm. Negotiations ensued because the association of farmers wanted to purchase vaccine for mad cow disease from the pharmaceutical company and Pharmco is interested in the sale. Negotiation involved four considerations including the price of the vaccine, the time of delivery, the guaranty of effectiveness, and the possibility of future testing on live cattle of the vaccine. The participants were assigned with their respective roles and the instructions in English.
The experiment subjects are 116 participants made up of 60 women and 56 men. The disparity was due to the failure of some male participants to appear during the period of the experiment. During the consideration of the characteristics of the respondents, another variable emerged which is the existence of prior relationships between and among the parties. As such, although the respondents were assigned randomly to their respective roles, the assignment of the research subjects into negotiating groups and roles considered the aspects of gender and prior relationship. The respondents were divided into three groups: male only, female only and mixed group and these groups are further divided into male only, female only and mixed groups with and without prior relationship. Average age of the respondents was 23.5 since 83 percent of the research subjects were students. The respondents also belonged to different ethnic groups and nationalities with their English proficiency ranging from good to excellent. As such, English constituted the language used in the simulated negotiations.
The experiment sought to study the effects of gender and prior relationship on electronic negotiations so that the study used text-based negotiation format for the experiment. The experiment used a simple network system (SimpleNS) that allows negotiating parties to distinguish between offers and messages. For the study, the researchers applied a text-based electronic network system that distinguishes for the participants, communications constituting offers and messages.
Respondents were asked to answer a questionnaire before and after participating in the experiment. This serves as a test to determine the attitudes and preferences of the respondents before the negotiation and after undergoing the negotiation process and achieving results. To analyze the questionnaire answers, the researchers employed the three methods of utilization, categorization and coding. Unitization involved the division of the textual data into thought units to reflect the state of mind of the respondents before and after the negotiations. Categorization applied through the identification and revision of the categories reflecting the distributive and integrative measures. Coding was used through the assignment of a main code to the thought units together with sub-categories. Trained coders were employed to conduct the coding analysis. After the completion of a method of analysis, reliability measures were employed, which in this case showed satisfactory reliability of the data.
Results of the study supported to an extent hypothesis 1 on the significant impact of gender during the negotiation process. Women tend to employ the integrative negotiation strategy by communicating more about specific issues and their preferences as well as exhibiting greater willingness to arrive at a consensus more than men do. However, women tended to target single issue offers relative to multiple issue offers when compared to men, which comprise a finding that negates an aspect of the first hypothesis. On the aspect of the preference of men for distributive negotiation strategies, this finds support from the results because men exhibit more competitive stance during the negotiations through the use of persuasions and even threats.
In relation to hypothesis 2, results supported the mediating role of the negotiation dyads on the impact of gender during the negotiation process. Through a t-test, a comparison of the negotiation behavior of the men and women respondents in adapting behavior based on their negotiation partners slightly supported the hypotheses on the behavior of the negotiating parties in instances of mixed and men or women-only dyads. This is because women have the greater tendency to share distributive information when negotiating through a mixed dyad when compared to all male or female dyads. Men also have the tendency to inquire about preferences and priorities when negotiating with women to show an integrative strategy in mixed dyads.
With regard to hypothesis 3, results show that negotiators have the tendency to shift their behavior in negotiating with people they already know. Men have the tendency to employ integrative strategy when negotiating with people with whom they have prior relationship while women behave in a similar manner whether they know the people they are negotiating with or not. Men become less competitive and use positive comments more when they are negotiating with people they know.
Overall, more women-only negotiating dyads reached an after-negotiation agreement when compared to the men-only dyads. Only one-third of the mixed-dyads reached an agreement. This supports the significant role of gender as a social influence in electronic negotiations but the extent of impact of gender depends upon the dyadic context.
The experiment has a number of implications to the study on the impact social influence on effective persuasion in Internet-based negotiations. First, gender constitutes an important social influence in effective persuasion since in some dyadic contexts the negotiating behavior of men and women differs. Second, effective persuasion in Internet-based negotiations involves information on the gender of partners and the opposing party and whether the opposing party has knowledge of the gender of the parties. This is because gender of the negotiating parties supports the determination of the strategies to be employed. A male negotiating with another male expects competitive negotiation that involves stronger persuasive actions. Anticipation of this negotiating atmosphere supports the implementation of appropriate strategies. Third, prior relationship with partners and opposing parties also determine the effectiveness of persuasive communication since males and females both exhibit integrative strategies in negotiating with people they know making it easier to achieve consensus.
In relation to the research variables and methods, the present study can consider gender as a social influence and prior relations in persuasions during negotiations as used in the experiment. The existence or lack of prior relationship also constitutes a consideration that positively reflects the realities of actual negotiations. The use of reliability measures for the data derived also constitutes a sound research technique in the current study in order to achieve reliable data as bases for conclusions.
Pasendorfer and Koeszegi[8] studied the impacts of synchronous and asynchronous modes of communication on electronic negotiations. The primary difference in synchronous and synchronous communications is the time delays with the former involving real time communications with lesser delays and the latter involving a greater extent of delay. Four hypotheses were determined for testing including: 1) synchronous communication results to the greater tendency of the negotiating parties to exhibit disinhibited behavior relative to the utilization of asynchronous communication so that more emotional statements would be observed; 2) synchronous communication results to greater competition and lesser problem-solving behaviors during the negotiation relative to the application of asynchronous communication so that there would lesser sharing of information or show of empathy; 3) synchronous communication results to greater process coordination owing to the electronic context of the negotiation; and 4) synchronous communication results to the observation of lesser statements on communication protocol because of the online environment involving the negotiations.
To test the hypotheses, the researchers employed two experiments. The experiments used simple networking system (SimpleNS), as a means of communication, which allowed the participants to distinguish between offers and statements. In total, there were 100 participants divided to have equal number of participants in the two experiment settings. Majority of the respondents were graduate students. The respondents do not have prior relationship with the other participants so that the participants were randomly distributed to their roles in the two experiment settings. The participants were asked to answer a questionnaire, before and after participating in the experiment, which draws the demographic characteristics of the respondents and feedback on the variables subject to investigation.
The first experiment involved asynchronous communications for a seller-buyer negotiation involving student participants from the University of Vienna and National Sun Yat-sen University in Taiwan. In this experiment, the parties from the different universities located in different regions were asked to reach an agreement within three weeks. The second experiment applied synchronous communications within a seller-buyer context with the respondents asked to reach an agreement within 45 minutes. The simulation experiments involved the trade of bicycle parts and pharmaceutical products. In the two experiments, mixed motives applied including the direction of the respondents towards distributive or integrative negotiation strategies. The participants uniformly received detailed directions on their roles and negotiation settings without suggesting or implying a specific strategy. The areas to be negotiated included the price of the products, delivery period, and quality of the products. In the bicycle trade setting, the parties specifically added terms of payment while in the pharmaceutical trade setting the participants added future cooperation during the negotiations.
The overall analytical method is content analysis. Three specific methods were used in analyzing the results, similar to the previous study, including unitization, categorization and coding. Communication units derived from the 50 negotiations were categorized and sub-categorized by trained independent coders. The derivation of Cohen’s kappa resulted to values considered as very good based on literature. Data treatment involved non-parametric statistics as comparison of the modes of communication. The frequency of the occurrence of communication units for every category and sub-category were determined for every participant. After this, median split was used to categorize the participants into the high or low categories of users of particular communication categories, which were in turn cross-tabulated with the modes of communication using the Chi-square test.
In relation to hypothesis 1, results showed greater affective statements and lesser expressions of apology or gratitude based on the communication units of the participants involved in the synchronous negotiation setting. This supports the hypothesis that synchronous communication results to greater observations of disinhibited behavior. With regard to hypothesis 2, data supports this hypothesis to a certain extent. In the synchronous mode of negotiation, the participants expressed greater degree of tactical behavior such as through the exertion of pressure, reference to alternative suppliers and buyers, request for information, and greater persuasive and rejection arguments. Concurrently, there were also lesser concessions and sharing of information. As such, negotiation behaviors of the respondents involved more competitive and offensive negotiation in the synchronous mode of communication. However, there was also a significant degree of emphatic communication through expressions of understanding in the communication units of the synchronous negotiation. Nevertheless, this can also be interpreted as tactical behavior so that this fits the competitive strategy. Hypothesis 3 and hypothesis 4 found support from the data since greater process and time coordination have been observed from the communication units of the synchronous negotiations. The participants also utilized lesser communication protocols in synchronous negotiations.
In addition, out of the 50 dyads, 31 reached an agreement within the appointed period. Out of this number, 17 dyads in the asynchronous negotiations and 14 dyads in the synchronous negotiations reached an agreement. A consideration of the quality of outcome of the negotiations shows lower satisfaction in the case of the parties under the synchronous negotiation setting because they perceive the negotiations as less friendly. In both synchronous and asynchronous dyads, the parties expressed having control over the negotiation process. Satisfaction with the outcome has implications on the commitment of the negotiators to the agreement.
This has an important implication on the study focusing on the impact of social influence on persuasions arising during negotiations. The extent that social influence operates in electronic negotiations depends on whether the negotiation process is synchronous or asynchronous. Synchronous negotiations offer greater dynamism because of real time communications resulting to less time for editing of statements and offers so that social influences are likely to be exhibited in this mode of communication unlike in asynchronous negotiations when the parties have time to ponder statements and offers resulting to a likelihood of developing more objectives perspectives of the opposing party’s view and the greater applications of integrative strategy.
Although the experiments were able to test the hypotheses and derive conclusions, the experiments only considered the mode of communication as the variable used in testing the hypotheses to the exclusion of other factors that could influence the negotiation behavior and communication of the respondents. As such, the present study can expand this experiment in order to consider social influence variables that could arise in these two negotiation settings.
Yuan, Milena and Du[9] conducted an experiment to study the impact of multimedia communications and combinations on the efficiency and effectiveness of communications and socio-emotional communications on the outcomes of negotiations. In addition, the researchers also studied the extent of influence of the perception of negotiators on outcomes of the negotiation. The study is based on the assumption that communications media used in negotiations have varying degrees of richness, which in turn influences the effectiveness of the negotiation process and the outcomes. Different media and media combinations also influence socio-emotional communications since the form of communications media determines the extent that one party perceives the presence of the other party that influences the manner of communication and negotiation strategies. Communications media that allows visual presence allows the operation of more cues that facilitates the negotiation process while media limited to oral or written communications limits the ability of the parties to recognized cues that are important in effective negotiations.
The study tested five categories of hypotheses under which are three sub-hypotheses. Hypothesis 1 provides that communication efficiency is greater for parties communicating using a combination of text, audio and video media relative to those using text and audio channels only. There are three sub-hypotheses, which are: 1) communication efficiency is greater for those using text and audio compared to those using text only; 2) communication efficiency for those using text, audio and video is greater when compared to those using text only; and 3) communication efficiency is greater for those using text, audio and video relative to those using only text and audio. Hypothesis 2 provides that communication effectiveness is greater for those negotiating through text, audio and video relative to those using text or text and audio. The three sub-hypotheses are: 1) communication effectiveness is greater by using text and audio than using text only; 2) communication effectiveness is greater by employing text, audio and video as compared to using text only; and 3) communication effectiveness is greater by using text, audio and video relative to the use of text and audio. Hypothesis 3 provides that positive and negative social-emotional communications is greater in using text, text and audio, and text, audio and video as communication channels. Hypothesis 4 provides that the use of text, text and audio, and text, audio and video enhances perceptions of better solution. Hypothesis 5 states that media combinations have an effect on the perceptions of the respondents so that communication efficiency and effectiveness are closely linked to a better solution, positive social-emotional communication positively affects the perception of a better solution, and negative social-emotional communication adversely influences the perception of a better solution.
To test these hypotheses, the researchers conducted an experiment that directed the participants to compare two media combinations in the negotiation context. Total participants were 120 individuals, majority of which have experienced online chat and more than one quarter have experienced video communication. The experiment involved a house buying/selling scenario through the use of two online negotiation methods covering the price, closing date, and extra fixtures. The participants were located in different rooms and made to answer a closed-ended questionnaire after the one and a half hour experiment.
Test of reliability of the data collected showed that the data derived during the experiment passed the internal reliability test. In analyzing data, paired comparisons were applied. Hypothesis 1 on greater communication efficiency for richer data was due to the quicker communications in using text and audio or text, audio and video and the ease in using richer media. However, the fusion of audio and video media with text media had no significant impact on the clarity of information. Hypothesis 2 found support in the greater comfort experienced by the participants in negotiating using audio and/or video with text together with the ability to experience stronger expressions and better communications. However, richer media had no impact on the retention of information. Hypothesis 3 found support to the extent that the infusion of audio and video during the negotiations created a positive atmosphere for the parties to the extent that social influence is greatly expressed through audio or video media channels resulting to the greater propensity to persuade or be persuaded. Video and audio also humanized the communication process to develop a greater extent of comfort during the negotiation process. However, video also resulted to negative social-emotional impact with some respondents expressing that video media distracts them from the negotiation process or limits their control over the process. Hypothesis 4 on the ability of richer media to facilitate better solutions found support in the combination of audio to text data because this was found to be faster, simple and comfortable. Text media was considered slow creating time gaps in communication that distracts the negotiators while video media was found to be distracting. Hypothesis 5 found support with the positive correlation between information clarity and ease of use to better solutions with the use of audio and video. Expression power also has a positive impact on negotiation success in the case of audio and video However, quicker response does not have an effect on perceptions of negotiation success. There was only no strong comparison with the regard to the impact of memory retention to negotiation success.
Results of the experiment have important implications to the study on the impact of social influences on persuasions during the negotiation process. One, the extent of impact of social influence on persuasion during negotiations depends on the communication media or media combinations used together with the context of the negotiations. Richer media is able to contribute ease in communications and greater expression of non-verbal cues to support the implementation of negotiation strategies. Using richer data allows greater social influence since enhanced communication enables the negotiating parties to persuade better to be persuaded to achieve negotiation outcomes. Another, the impact of social influence depends upon the negotiation context since there are instances when fusing video with text media has a lesser effect than using audio with text. In some instances, audio with text allows for more effective persuasion but in other circumstances, audio and video with text enables a more effective persuasion through influences employed during the communication process using the appropriate media. Using different medium of communication enhances the operation of social influences during the negotiation process.
With regard to the methods applied in the study, reliability tests are important in supporting the merit of conclusions derived from the analyzed data. However, the variables used in the study were not able to determine the instances when the media combinations are more effective resulting to the need to expand the experiment and measures further to be able to determine the online circumstances when certain media and media combinations are more effective in facilitating negotiation outcomes through the operation of social influences.
Sokolova and Szpakowicz[10] conducted an experiment to determine the role of language in the realization of negotiation strategies. To derive data, the researchers used data from Inspire, which is a public domain tool used in teaching and research applied by various colleges and universities in different countries. Inspire was able to provide accounts of bilateral negotiations. The type of negotiation was divided into simple and complex with simple negotiations involving the exchange of documents or agreements since there are no issues or differences in opinion on the terms while complex negotiations refer to complex issues and multiple offers or counter-offers. Participants in the study totaled 5, 500 individuals. Text of the communication arising in the negotiation was analyzed using data mining and text analysis to determine patterns of language use in relation to negotiation outcomes.
A consideration of the texts of the negotiations showed that the most common words are ‘you can accept’, ‘i would be’, ‘you can see’, ‘we can make’, and ‘i cannot accept’. These terms imply that the common negotiation strategy is to make a suggestion. The use of personal pronouns also indicate interpersonal communications since the statements make reference to the other party to determine the recipient of the statement and to direct the party to whom the statements are being referred to. In addition, event verbs are also common because the situation involves the negotiation process that covers expectations of actions on the part of all negotiating parties. Moreover, the prevalence and variety of cognition or perception verbs indicate the attention given in understanding and processing the information being communicated, which is typical in written communications.
The analysis of the language patterns and their impact on the classification of the negotiations as either simple or complex depends on the use of these words ‘you should not be’, ‘we must be’, ‘i cannot accept’, and ‘I should do” as suggested by literature. However, based on the text analysis made by the respondents, the frequency of occurrence of these words is sparse. This means that other words, although still using personal pronouns, event verbs and cognition verbs determine the outcomes of the negotiation process.
The consideration of whether language signals can influence and predict the success of negotiations involves text analysis that determines the extent of recall as expressed by the negotiating parties since recall together with cognition represents an important predictor of the success of negotiations. In using knowledge-based representation, three language signal categories were considered, including the types of words comprising the language patterns in the textual accounts of the negotiation, common pattern words and conditions derived from the literature, and most frequent words arising from the data derived from Inspire database. Consideration of these language signal classifications indicate that the language signals can be used to predict whether negotiations would become successful. In the three classifications, language signals show that recall has been improved relative to the baseline used. However, as much as the prediction of successful negotiations is enhanced through the consideration and use of language signals, the extent of predicting unsuccessful negotiations diminishes with the application of knowledge-based representations.
Overall, the outcomes of the negotiation process are capable of prediction during the initial stage of negotiations. This is due to the use of language signals that indicate the appeals made by the parties, the logical necessities of the negotiation process, and the expression of intentions in the application of strategies during the negotiation process. These language signals serve as tools in the processes of offer exchanges, agreements and refusals, persuasion, reflective reasoning, expressions of emotions and opinions, and substantiation.
In relation to the present study on the impact of social influence on effective persuasions during the negotiation process, the results of the linguistic study carry a number of implications. First, social influence is expressed through language signals during electronic negotiations. The language used together with the manner of delivery expresses the extent that social influence affects persuasion and the eventual outcomes of the negotiation process. Second, the extent of social influence used by the parties in the negotiation determines the persuasive impact as well as the negotiating strategies applied. Through the consideration of the language used by one party and the reply of the other negotiating party determines the outcomes of the negotiation process. Third, the appropriate negotiation strategy to apply in persuading the other party can be determined by considering the implications of the linguistic style of the other party. This means that the results of the experiment have implications not only on understanding the impact of social influence on persuasion through linguistic style but also the determination of appropriate negotiating strategy.
Conclusion
The impact of social influence on persuasion in internet-based negotiation is a timely topic of study because of the greater propensity for online negotiations in the electronic age covering divergent issues. Social influence is an important specific area of study because the implementation or operation of different social factors that influence the effectiveness of persuasion determines the success or failure of negotiations. Studies on electronic negotiations has also focused on the nature of this type of negotiation mode together with strategies for effective negotiations without giving ample consideration of the social influences that affect the process and outcomes of the negotiation. There are experimental studies that cover, to a certain extent, social influences on electronic negotiations but these focuses on the role of gender and prior relationship in persuasive techniques during electronic negotiations, the impact of the mode of communication on effective persuasion, and the role of language in influencing the other negotiating parties. However, there are instances when these studies focus only on specific aspects of the operation of social influence without considering social influence as the context of the study. This means that although variables and methods used in the study can serve as guide in the current study, there is need to enlarge the scope of the study to consider social influences as the overall context of the investigation.
Bibliography
Bauknecht, Kurt, Madria, Sanjay Kumar, and Pernul, Günther. 2001. Electronic Commerce and Web Technologies. Berkeley, CA: Springer.
Bazerman, Max, Curhan, Jared, Moore, Don, and Valley, Kathleen. 2000. Negotiation. Annual Review of Psychology 51: 279–314.
Kelman, Herbert. 2006. Interests, Relationships, Identities: Three Central Issues for Individuals and Groups in Negotiating Their Social Environment. Annual Review of Psychology 57: 1-26.
Koeszegi, Sabine, Pesendorfer, Eva-Maria, and Stolz, Sabine. 2006. Gender Salience in Electronic Negotiations.’ Electronic Markets 16: 173-185.
Pesendorfer, Eva-Maria, and Koeszegi, Sabine. 2006. Hot Versus Cool Behavioural Styles in Electronic Negotiations: The Impact of Communication Mode. Group Decision and Negotiation 15: 141–155.
Sokolova, Marina, and Szpakowicz, Stan. Strategies and language trends in learning success and failure of negotiation. Group Decision and Negotiation 16: 469–484.
Yuan, Yufei, Head, Milena, and Du, Mei. 2003. The Effects of Multimedia Communication on Web-Based Negotiation. Group Decision and Negotiation 12: 89–109.
[1] Max Bazerman et al., “Negotiation,” Annual Review of Psychology 51(2000): 283.
[2] Max Bazerman et al., “Negotiation,” Annual Review of Psychology 51(2000): 283.
[3] See Above, 284.
[4] Bazerman et al., 284.
[5] Herbert Kelman, “Interests, Relationships, Identities: Three Central Issues for Individuals and Groups in Negotiating Their Social Environment,” Annual Review of Psychology 57(2006): 5.
[6] Kurt Bauknecht, Sanjay Kumar Madria, and Günther Pernul, Electronic Commerce and Web Technologies (Berkeley, CA: Springer, 2001), 96.
[7] Koeszegi, Sabine, Pesendorfer, Eva-Maria, and Stolz, Sabine, “Gender Salience in Electronic Negotiations,” Electronic Markets 16(2006): 173 – 185.
[8] Pesendorfer, Eva-Maria and Koeszegi, Sabine, “Hot Versus Cool Behavioural Styles in Electronic Negotiations: The Impact of Communication Mode,” Group Decision and Negotiation 15(2006): 141–155.
[9] Yuan, Yufei, Head, Milena, and Du, Mei, “The Effects of Multimedia Communication on Web-Based Negotiation,” Group Decision and Negotiation 12(2003): 89–109.
[10] Sokolova, Marina and Szpakowicz, Stan, “Strategies and language trends in learning success and failure of negotiation,” Group Decision and Negotiation 16(2007): 469–484.
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