Introduction
Some 98 percent of the world’s population is learning English starting from an early age through college. In Southeast Asia, (1998) classifies English learning students into two categories, being that of collectivism and individualism. His research revealed that people in East Asian countries have emerged as showing a much stronger collectivist orientation than people in Western countries, therefore, East Asian students, including the Chinese, will have a strong inclination to form in groups which work towards common goals, East Asian students will be reluctant to ‘stand out’ by expressing their views or raising questions in the context of classroom setting, East Asian students will perceive the teacher as an authority figure, and that East Asian students will see knowledge as something to be transmitted by the teacher rather than discovered by the learners ( 1998).
Since in the late 1970, there has been an emerging “boom” of learning English in China because of its “open door” policies. At China’s tertiary level, there is indeed a great need for qualified foreign and Chinese English teachers. Accordingly, the number of English learning students is also increasing, wherein, a percentage of over 90 percent of college students in China are in fact taking English as a compulsory course. At first, China as being known to be strongly attached to its rich culture, showed considerable amount of resistance to the teaching of English, but with the signs indicating that China’s Open Door policy is likely to continue, the Chinese nation now exhibits hunger in the want to learn the English language.
In this paper, it would explore on how English is taught in Chinese schools, specifically in the secondary education. The four aspects of English competence namely, reading, writing, speaking and listening, are all essential and should be incorporated one aspect at a time to ensure learning English is successful. Moreover, this paper will discuss the current problems confronting the teachers in teaching the English language and as to how the said problems can be addressed, both for the teachers and the students. Including a discussion of an English program, named the CLT, to better improve on the learning of English and basically the evolvement of the teaching English language in China as it is already, currently, has been a compulsory subject in the primary education. Beforehand, in the main part, an overview of the educational reforms and the secondary education has been included to broaden and give the full picture of education in China.
Main Part
Education Reforms in China
One major political movement in China is the Cultural Revolution in 1949 which was considered by the world to be the most extreme radical politics, that has had greatly affects the China’s field of education. After another political regime, it is evident that reformation in the education is necessary to make the field of education fit in to support both political and economic goals. Historically, China’s education has been linked to politics, institutionally and philosophically. In 1905, for instance, the traditional education with it imperial civil service was abolished, thus, a shift from production of scholar class to placing more emphasis to seek of bringing in social change and fostering social cohesion among Chinese. The Confucian tradition of learning stresses the way in which it emphasizes political and social stability, is governed and guided by two key concepts, the hierarchy and obedience. Chinese children at such a tender age are taught that they are a part of hierarchical structure called family. As the child grows, the traditional child-rearing practices among Chinese gradually mold their children to be accepting of their positions and must at all times practiced obedience to the elders, authority figures or even to the people with higher positions. As Chinese children enter school, then came the introduction of social hierarchy, wherein they will be taught how to rightfully and appropriately behave in the society. It is therefore, the two guiding concepts of Confucianism education spells harmony with the invaluable cultural values that de-stresses the importance of a Chinese individual. As explained by (1957), China’s great religion all shared this value encompassing the core of Confucianism. Further, the ultimate goal of Confucian education, in theory, is the learning of the essential rules of social relationships and ethical codes. Additionally, in practice, Chinese traditional education was concerned with the preparation and selection of the ruling elite.
When the communists took over the power in 1949, the primary objective of education was reformed to be congruent to socialism. The focus of education by that time is in the generation of ideologically trustworthy and technically competent Chinese to be socialist-minded. Educational reforms were conducted to consider the complaints made by students from poor peasant and worker families that they had been discriminated against by the bourgeois-oriented educational system ( 1971) had prompted the issuance of a radical decree by Mao in 1966, which seeks the abolishment of the universities entrance examinations in order to give way and chances to the working class students and in the elimination of gaps between Chinese students who came from different background, such that the abolishment would ensure education will be made available and accessible for all. The middle school graduates were directly suited for jobs, all of which was decided by the pertinent work institutions. Moreover, with the reformed school curriculum in 1968, it constitutes the following features: (1) it portrayed the systematized theory of teaching and taught concepts in relation to both industrial and agricultural work; (2) the non-admiration and the absence of reward to the students academic excellence in the school; (3) it seeks the combination of field work and classroom learning; (4) the elimination of entrance examination; (5) school graduates were assigned jobs in factories or sent to work on farms, and selected from there to go to universities (Unger, 1984); (6) the cut down of the length of pre-tertiary education from 12 to 10 years (five years for elementary and five years for middle school). With the implementation of the newly reformed curriculum, the school institution has been bothered and confronted with problems, such that teachers proved to have had a hard time getting students back to schools after the field work and basically in the adjustment of the hectic routine of school life. In fact, the area of the profession in teaching has been surmounted with demoralization and the reading materials were filled with political jargons. Worst, is that students were not motivated to learn since it made them feel going to school was useless.
After Mao’s death, the fall of the radical Gang of Four and the cease of the radical Cultural Revolution usher in a moderate political climate and instantly the changes affected colleges and universities. According to (1977) reports that throughout the country, radical leaders in higher education left their posts, and more moderate administrators and teachers regained their lost positions. China after the emphasis of class struggle now seeks to focus towards economic construction. In 1978, Deng Xiaoping declared that the hastening economic and technical developments would mean rapid improvements in the field of education in terms of quality and efficiency. Similarly, , the Minister of Education in 1979, stated his arguments saying, it goes without saying that we should earnestly study the experience of foreign countries . . . but to blindly follow the way schools in capitalist countries are run or, as some people have suggested, to let foreigners come and run the schools in our country is obviously not practical and not compatible with China’s specific conditions. Schools are different from factories . . . In the case of a factory, the equipment and technology, which is classless in nature, can be imported. But schools are part of the superstructure and they should train students, who have a class character, to work wholeheartedly for the cause of socialism.
It was in 1981, that English had reclaimed its position as the most important foreign language in China ( 1979). The constant educational reforms in China supported the aims of breaking the old and establishing the new ones. Culture can be readily broken down into dominant and subordinate culture, as what postmodern theorists would put it. As for Chinese reformers, their point is in the strengthening and maintaining a socialist society. To contrast the educational reforms of China and the United States, the educational reform in China was a top-down movement whereas in the United States, it is a bottom-up movement. In conclusion, Chinese education has never been neutral but is more of ideological and political to Chinese educators because the Chinese people believes that part of education’s ideals, entails the embodiment of ideology and is a best, if not a good way to disseminate information to people.
Secondary and English Education in China
Secondary education is a period in which it is regarded in the world to be the most contemporary educational systems, which proceeds right after the accomplishment of a primary education. The purpose of having a secondary education is to prepare for either higher education or vocational training. In the Republic of China, that has been heavily influenced from the Japanese system, have a comprehensive education system that has been successful since it can boast several highest test scores in the world, particularly in Math and Science, however, it has also received criticisms for putting extreme pressures to students and overly emphasizing rote memorization.
The secondary education in China has been subdivided into two, the junior high school and the senior high school. Junior high school, as the last half of compulsory education, comprises grades 7 through 9 in which its driven by a single goal of passing and scoring high in the national senior high school exam prior to be eligible to reach the other half of secondary education which is senior high school. Subjects that are included in junior high school are English, literature, mathematics, biology, physics, chemistry, and the like. Consequently, intense pressure from teachers and parent are being imposed to students. More or less, after taking the national exam for senior high school, 94.7 percent is shown to have continued their education either to be a senior high or in vocational schools. Senior high school, on the other hand, spans grades 10 through 12, after have had reached the goal of passing in the national exam for senior high, the main goal of senior high school students, is to pass and even score highly on the national university entrance exams in preparation to have a college education. By the end of their third year, passing the national university entrance examinations will be the ultimate test for senior high school students in the hope of pursuing school and have a shot to earn a college degree in a four-year university.
As early as 1978, China has adopted the education policy of “nine-year compulsory schooling system”, which implies, according to (1992), that all children are required to attend school for at least nine years – six years in primary school and three years in junior secondary school. The three core subjects in the curriculum include, Chinese, mathematics, and English. Usually, Chinese children are taught to learn English when they reach Grade 3 and since then remains as a compulsory subject. According to and (2000), there are around 550,000 secondary teachers of English, and millions of students learning English at the secondary level in China. Figures have revealed that 55% junior secondary teachers and 80.4% senior secondary teachers hold a university degree among those in-service teachers. In 1999, confronted with the inadequate capability of English Chinese teachers, the Ministry of Education formulated an action plan called the “Gardner Project” ( 1999) to revitalize the China’s education approaching the 21st century. Several goals are associated in the Gardner Project, among which are to increase the abilities and skills of teachers, expand the English knowledge, fostering of lifelong learning and enhancement of teacher’s overall qualifications. Figure 1, illustrates the classroom activities of English Chinese teachers in the practice of teaching English.
Figure 1.
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(1) The current practical problems about English learning and teaching in Chinese secondary schools (esp. the teaching to the tests) and the causes.
(2003) detailed that to implements to the spread of English, he argues that “if China [is] to prosper in the Globalization Age, English Education will have to reform so that learners can use the language in a more authentic way.” Particularly, the Chinese Ministry of Education’s protocol for Extensive Reading classes which instructs teachers to direct students in understanding English speaking countries’ society, culture, politics, economy, history, geography, traditions, and customs, life-styles and other such knowledge in a context detailing the failure of the system to achieve those goals ( 2003). Consequently, the Teaching English in China journal ( 2003) suggests that teachers should preside over student-centered classes rather the traditional teacher-centered class combined with the creation of an atmospheres that is harmonious and encourage students to participate more in class, which is presumably, in turn, is said to produce students who are willing and able to speak English fluently. The English teaching in China started with the focus on grammar-translation method and the placed emphasis on the focus in English written examination scores. Although Chinese students have learned significant amounts of grammar and memorized many English words, the problem with gauging the students in terms of how well they learn English through written examinations, seemingly does not imply that it had equipped Chinese students the wholeness of learning English but it only equipped students in the writing and reading aspect which proves to be still inadequate, such that in real life application of the English language necessitates speaking and being able to averagely converse the use of it. As what (1978) points out, that an overemphasis on grammar would lead to prevent the learners from developing their communicative competence, inhibiting the student to be well converse in the use of English. Additionally, (2000) involves an interactive reading process, both the top-down and bottom-up processing, should occur at the same time.
Chinese students in the reading and writing aspect of English learning may not pose problems since to a great extent it is being taught rigidly. The style of teaching the English language, in terms of reading and writing, is not considered unnecessary for both aspects are basics in English teaching, but the problem is said to arise of the fact that it stagnates the level to which English should be taught. A prominent problem in English language lies in the aspects of listening and speaking primarily because little emphasis has been placed to these aspects. Perhaps, one of the basic reasons why Chinese are less motivated to learn and not be adaptive to English teaching is because frequently, Chinese students inability to understand what is being taught in English listening classes since they cannot grasp the spoken content of the lessons. In listening comprehension, for instance, it undergoes the process of not simply decoding the message; but it also involves the combining of the decoding of the message process with its reconstruction as meaning ( 2002). As a result, many Chinese students are seen to exhibit lack of confidence in their oral English language capabilities and are oftentimes have self-defeating and defensive attitude towards English learning. (1972) points out that the root of the problem, the learners’ deficiency in the ability to actually use the language lies in the approach itself. Similarly, many aspects of language learning can take place only through natural processes, which operate when a person is involved using the language for communication and the learners’ ultimate goal is to communicate with others (1981).
The over reliance on written examination will not suffice the overall dimension of the effectiveness of English education. Written examination can only measure the student’s English capability when it comes to written English but ignores the pivotal aspect of verbal English, which serves as the real measure of one’s English competence. As English Chinese teachers continues to emphasize the written examination, Chinese students is likely to focus only in the writing and reading dimensions and may further ignore the importance of speaking and listening aspect of English learning. The need to reform the method of teaching English should be dealt with to promote the English education in a holistic perspective and better equipped Chinese people to be fluent and proficient in English.
(2) The changes of the attitude about learning English in nowadays China (China’s reform and opening up) and the exploration
After having been closed to international intercourse for decades and to the world, in December 1978, China adopted its Open Door policy at the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Communist Party of China. Since then, China is facing enormous alterations, economically, industrially, socially, educationally and politically. By 2003, China’s school population reached a whopping 185 million. Its development rate in the above areas is phenomenal and has been quoted by experts ( 1998) as second to none in the world over the last ten years. In addition, with the set of enormous changes, China is implementing a New Curriculum in the teaching of English as it turns on its head centuries-old traditional teacher-centered methodologies and requires teachers and students to become more autonomous, creative and personally accountable for learning ( 2002). This innovation is seen to be one of the greatest educational challenges in the last two decades (2002) whose principal concern is to help students of English move further from competence to performance.
Prior to 2001, English has not been a compulsory subject in primary schools although English teaching has taken place, in private schools perhaps. According to (2001), it has been estimated that 8 million primary schools are studying English in 1998 and the number has been rapidly growing, with increase of one million every year since 1994. Increasingly, as the new millennium approaches, the Chinese government has shown concerned to upgrade the level of English to all Chinese people. 5 years ago, in 2001, as mandated by the Chinese government, English has become a compulsory subject, starting in the cities and then to the towns and villages ( 2001). With the move initiated by the Chinese government to include English as a compulsory subject in the primary education, automatically confirms the desire of the change in attitude of China. China encompasses a huge number of population, with the fact that they seek economic reforms and thrive to be competent (as Chinese are always are) economically which they can use it to their advantage. Seeing the need to be competent, especially in the business, they must come to terms in being able to learn and speak English well, since English is being considered to be the universal language. As China continue to brace themselves to the challenges in the economic arena together with the growing number of Chinese people that are slowly getting fluent in English, it is no doubt that China will no longer be the land of the sleeping giants.
(3) Seek for the well desired English learning programs to help the students not only improve the test scores (esp. for the college entrance examination), but practically improve their abilities and skills in English use in reality.
Chinese students’ English learning strategies are primarily composed of the following features: focus on reading and writing; grammar and translation; memorization of vocabulary ( 2002). However, according to (2002), the traditional grammar-translation method failed to develop an adequate level of communicative competence (i.e. the ability to use the target language for authentic communication. Along with China’s aim to instill economic stability and promote their capabilities in international and global business arena, it necessitates Chinese people to enhance their communicative competence so as to improve the overall ability of conversing in English. The goal for the school and the students should not be limited only to the goal to well educate in the written language or getting higher in the examinations but the goals should also be extended in being good at speaking to be able to converse in English well clearly. One of the English learning program that can provide help and to a great extent can be useful in the improvement of English learning in China is the communicative language teaching (CLT) since it stresses on the aspects that are not of primary focus to Chinese English teachers along with the previous focus on the reading and writing. The CLT is an innovation and a new trend in English language teaching (ELT) that emerges in Britain in the 1970. After two decades of introduction in Britain, CLT was introduced to China in the 1990’s, in which it met with considerable resistance ( 2003; , 2003; 2002). Chinese English teachers, for example, are said to have tried to alter old dominant teaching procedures but quickly get frustrated, lose their initial enthusiasm, and acquiesce to tradition ( 1993).CLT with its introduction to China was viewed into two contradictory folds. First, that the CLT is said to be not feasible because of China’s very specific conditions and second, that CLT is seen to be the solutions in the education problems that bombarded English learning and that it had suited China’s needs. However, with the subtle and seemingly rejection of CLT, in 1992, the State Education Development Commission (SEDC), as the official authority who has the power to make educational policy and as the representative of the central government that can determine the goal, curriculum, course books, and even teaching methods in China, introduces a functional syllabus that aims in the communicative teaching of English learning. The SEDC stated in the new syllabus that English teaching aims are: by training in listening, speaking, reading and writing, to teach students in order to gain basic knowledge of English and competence to use English for communication ( 1992). Additionally, through the cooperation of British Longman, SEDC was able to publish a new textbook series. According to (1993), the highly centralized Chinese system of education subverts the development of more effective methods of teaching English in a number of ways, particularly in the ways foreign language teachers are selected and trained, materials and methods chosen, and programs and teachers are evaluated.
Central to the characteristics of CLT is that almost everything that is done with communicative intent ( 2000). CLT provides opportunities for students to communicate meaningfully in English such that the program provides language learning activities that are organized into disparate contexts and roles while at the same time students are being expected not to use Chinese language during class while the teacher deliberately lessens the giving of corrections of student’s English errors to foster risk-taking, building up of confidence and ensuring language learning. Another feature of CLT is that the activities in the Communicative Approach are carried out oftentimes by students in small groups in the process of encouraging interaction with the incorporation of the English language. Lastly CLT is a learner-centered and experience-based teaching ( 2002) such that the teachers in CLT class along with the students acts as the managers of learning. In terms of grammar, as it has been said to de-emphasize the writing and reading aspects when adopting CLT, instead the CLT focuses on the learners to discovery of the essence of grammar rather than teachers spoon feeding the grammar learning. (1992) forwards that while looking explicitly at grammar may not lead immediately to learning, it will facilitate learning at a later stage when the learner is ready (in some way that is not yet understood) to internalize the new information about the language.
Moving on, as the results yielded a positive mark, gradually teachers were inclined to accept the concept of CLT. According to (1996), there is now widespread awareness of more communicative approaches, though some eclectic compromise with Chinese approaches to language teaching is appropriate. By embodying CLT in the English learning, teachers were then able to progressively catch up with the developments and advancements in English teaching methods and triggers a sense of realization for teachers, that teaching English does not only entails teaching only the grammar, but the true mastery of English involves communicative competence. For students, CLT enables them to more competent in the communication aspect wherein a good level of English aids them considerably as they embark and graduate in college, acquire better jobs (especially in the courses encompassing the business world) and slowly help China to produce citizens with superior level of English language proficiency.
(4) For the teachers, how to help the students to achieve those goals mentioned above through classroom teaching (teaching management)
Students learn effectively about language when they take part actively in the communication with language rather than only passively accepting what the teacher said (1996). (1991) reveals that a language learner can, and must, and take control of his/her own language learning and assume responsibility for his/her success or failure. First and foremost, since Chinese English teachers are still largely governed by their national ideology and their strong belief, so teachers should realize the need to change their beliefs and attitudes towards English learning. According to (2001), teachers have to accommodate new beliefs and see themselves in the new roles being asked of them and this can be very demanding. The new beliefs and ideas will have to be gradually incorporated into the teachers’ own beliefs structures through continuous practice and reflections so that adjustments can be made in their own thinking ( 1995). Secondly, granting that teachers have the accommodation of new beliefs, Chinese English teachers needs to acquire new skills and techniques in teaching and in assessment in accordance to the embodiment of fresh concepts in teaching and accordingly to the needs of the student.
In terms of teaching management, Chinese English teachers can adopt the teaching approach of listening-based learning for overall language development. The pedagogical approach involves the combination of face-to-face teaching and encouragement of students’ autonomous learning, like the students own monitoring and control in their learning progress, choose the area of their learning content and their learning methods. Through this way, Chinese students partakes an active part in the development and planning of classroom activities, and on one hand, Chinese English teacher task in classroom management lessens, which in turn, expanded the teacher’s role from being the sole distributor of knowledge to a multi-skilled facilitator. Further, the listening-based learning promotes a less formal communication between the teachers and the students yet more frequent. Nevertheless, in adopting a new teaching approach in English teaching, it provides flexibility in time arrangements, individualization, the initiative taking encouragement, and act personally for autonomy, altogether, ensures that the needs of the Chinese students are being meet accordingly and adequately can better learn English both verbally and nonverbal.
(5) For the students, how to make their study of English more interesting and efficient
It is evident that Chinese students, as revealed from a certain survey that the students preferred non-communicative activities over that of communicative ones although they liked a variety of class activities. Majority of the students preferred teachers’ grammatical explanations in English mother-tongue-avoidance strategy in class, citing the inadequacy of authentic English context and confidence in inhibiting themselves from participating in communicative activities. Contrary to the revelations of the survey, (2002) said that Chinese students preferred a combination of communicative and non-communicative activities in class. Of course, the student’s attitude towards English learning is correlated with how the students perceived their teacher’s attitude towards English learning. Like if the teacher is in itself not capable of teaching English that can be comprehendible enough for the students or convey the subject matter clearly, students will lose motivation and are likely to be inadequate and incompetent just like the teacher. It is natural that in China, learners need not urge to use English in their daily life except of course in class. With this trend continuing, English learning tends to be slow.
However, Chinese students can make a way to make the study of English be interesting and efficient. Chinese students should access a convenient and enjoyable English learning environment outside class, wherein it would significantly aid them easily in the development of their communicative competence and compromise on China’s government not able to supply the educational institutions with audio-visual laboratories intended to improve the listening capability (especially in the intonation and diction), computers, and overhead projectors or televisions in the facilitation of dynamic teaching/learning activities to focus on the speaking. Students need to listen to different levels of English, writing, reading and especially in speaking and listening in order to be exposed themselves with the natural and real life applications of the English language. It is said that to be able to acquire the English language or any sort of language, the exposure to the said language can equip the students with ample motivation, makes the English learning enjoyable, cultivate their listening interest and is more likely to achieve the goals of grasping the very core of English learning, which includes activities like listening to English songs or watching films with English text.
(6) Conclusions
English learning is now inevitably a part of China’s education system. As China continually seek to improve English learning, be it through the empowerment of the teachers or the efforts of the government, it is predicted that in the future China will be able to generate English speaking Chinese individuals as it embarks the world scene.
The shift from the traditional teaching of being teacher-centered and the focus in the grammar-translation method to the curriculum now being student-centered and the enhancement of the teaching method to include the overall measure of instilling English competence, will gradually equip Chinese students to learn English the better way and the way it should be. Moreover, the presence of other English education approaches and alternative means of learning English, particularly the involvement of outside-school English activities, will by all means make English learning more learnable, enjoyable, convenient and easy and can make Chinese people more enthusiastic in English learning.
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