Most useful technique in Investigative Psychology
Introduction
This essay intends to discuss the Psychology, Forensic Psychology, Investigative Psychology and different techniques used in the said kind of psychology. The essay also intends to discus the most useful technique or method in investigative Psychology currently used today. Lastly the said most useful technique will be compared to the other techniques that came before it.
Psychology
Psychology is can be defined as the science of consciousness. It is the business of a science systematically to describe and explain the phenomena with which it is engaged. Chemistry, physics, and the various branches of biology all attempt to deal in this manner with some special portion of the facts or processes of nature. Mental facts, or facts of consciousness, constitute the field of psychology. Psychology can also be defined traditionally as the science of mind. This is the translation of the two Greek words from which ‘psychology’ is compounded (James 1909).
The definition is now open to many objections. The most important of these is that the word ‘mind’ has in the course of long use taken on many meanings and implications which do not concern psychology as a science. Various terms have been suggested to avoid these objections. Psychology has been defined as the science of consciousness, or as the science of experience subjectively regarded (Baldwin 1889). Each definition has advantages, but no one so far suggested is free from objection. It is most satisfactory to give up the attempt to find a single word that will designate the facts covered by psychology, and to indicate the actual phenomena that it studies which is the evidences of mind. Psychology is the study of human nature. It is the study of man, man as a living being, how he/she acts in an ever-changing world, how he/she responds to things and events and other people. Knowledge of what man is, and having knowledge of the full answer to the question about the nature of man, brings about knowledge of what human nature is and what psychology comprises (Jastrow 1906).
Forensic Psychology
In a book edited by Petrovsky and Yaroshevsky (1987) Forensic psychology is a branch of psychology that studies problems pertaining to legal proceedings such as the psychology of judges, investigators, and other law-enforcement officers and lawyers, the essence of their professional activities, and their selection and training methods; it also studies the psychology of the accused, the witnesses, and the victims; it also studies the psychology of witness testimony and the psychological principles of investigatory and judicial actions including interrogation, confrontation, and others ; Furthermore the psychology of inquiry is being studied in this branch; and lastly the methodology and techniques of forensic psychological expert examination is studied. Forensic psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with predicting, assessing, and treating criminal behavior (Butler 2000). In The Concise Dictionary of Psychology, Forensic psychology is known as the study of the psychological factors involved in legal issues such as criminal behavior, decision-making by juries and eyewitness testimony (Statt 1998). Forensic psychology focuses on the law and the different aspects and details of it.
Criminal Psychology applies psychological knowledge to the understanding, prediction and nature of crime and behavior related to crime. This area has become more and more important in the matter of eyewitness testimony. In the area of forensic psychology, psychologists have recently helped to illustrate how highly unreliable this type of evidence is. In criminology, the psychologist conducts therapeutic work with people who have come into conflict with the law. (Petrovsky & Yaroshevsky 1987)
Comparison of Investigative Psychology used by US and UK
Professor David Canter was the developer of Investigative Psychology or the method known as profiling method. He developed it in England between 1985 and 1992. This method is used in the United States (U.S.) and had certain differences with the method used in United Kingdom (UK). There are two approaches to modern day profiling. One is that as used by the F.B.I developed through the Behavioral Science Unit (BSU) in Quantico, Virginia. Profiles are produced using data gathered from a series of in-depth interviews with convicted criminals resulting in a classification system for offences. The basis being that crimes then, depending on the modus operandi and the crime scene will fit into certain classifications giving indicators as to the offenders profile. The aim is then to give some scope for prediction of future crimes and lessen the field of investigation. The other approach is that commonly known as the British approach. This method has its origins in behavioral psychology and attempts to place a more scientific method to understanding the criminal mind and actions. Both these approaches have flaws and both have successes (Ainsworth 2000).
One of the main criticisms of the American approach is that it is founded on a small sample group. Further problems are seen that as a convicted criminal who is sentenced to a number of years may be too bored with his/her current routine. Just to gain more time out the normal routine these criminal exaggerate their accounts to keep the interviewers interested. The honesty and the authenticity of the data collected may be questioned. The British approach tends to have its roots in psychology and is seen more as a way of trying to understand the way in which the crime was committed and how, with a belief that the answers to these questions give an insight as to the probabilities of the criminals behavior in everyday life.
Differences in the British and American approaches can be described as follows. The US use more of a top-down method relying on data drawn from previously interviewed convicts, while a bottom-up approach is applied by the British profilers. The latter is seen as the more scientific attempt to connect crimes and criminal characteristics via analysis of crime scenes. A weakness that can be formulated from the approach by UK includes their psychologists are not usually brought in to assist police until later by which time the actual crime scene is not generally available. However, this approach can dispel assumptions and presuppositions of previous criminal’s behavior as the American approach can be seen to focus on. The American approach also can be seen to lead to generalizations.
Both the British and American approaches tend to be based around serious crime such as serial murder or serial rape/ sexual assault. The main focus of the method is to categorize the crime into disorganized and organized. The disorganized crime being one that sees the criminal as having acted in a disorganized fashion, a more opportunistic occurrence with the crime scene itself seeming haphazard, the body not concealed or concealed badly. The organized crime is just that, their victim has generally been chosen for a reason, the actual act planned and the evidence concealed or arranged particularly. The disorganized criminal tends to act only when the opportunity and an overwhelming compulsion are combined. This method could be seen to be placing a large emphasis on the individual profiler making the distinction. Once made then certain assumptions are made as to other likely factors of the criminal’s life such as social functioning age etc drawn from existing data. (McIllveen 1998).
Investigative Psychology
Part of Forensic psychology is Investigative Psychology. Investigative Psychology is the ways psychology can be used or integrated with the processes and procedures of criminal investigation. Criminal investigation involves steps that includes determination if a crime has been committed, verifying the jurisdictional and statutory authority before beginning a thorough and systematic inquiry, discover all the facts and collect evidences, if there are stolen property recover it, identify the perpetrator or perpetrators, locate and apprehend the said perpetrator or perpetrators, aid the persecution by providing evidence admissible in court, and testify effectively as witness in court. Investigative psychology uses methods like psychological autopsies, polygraphs, forensic hypnosis, facial composites, DNA testing. (NCWC 2000)
Autopsy also referred to as a postmortem examination or necropsy, is an Ancient practice. The term is derived from the Greek word autopsia, meaning seeing with one’s own eyes. Autopsy is the medical examination of a dead human body, including the internal organs, to determine the cause of death or to study pathological changes. An autopsy is performed by a doctor trained in pathology (Rentein 2004).
After the exterior body is thoroughly examined, an incision is made to expose the internal organs. Their position is noted, and they are removed for examination by eye and further study under a microscope. Most autopsies serve to advance medical knowledge, but autopsies also have legal uses. Deaths resulting from violence or poison, or occurring under suspicious circumstances, are investigated by a government officer, called either a coroner or a medical examiner. In such instances, the autopsy is made to determine the time and circumstances of death, thereby providing evidence for legal action. Autopsies are performed for several reasons. The most obvious is to establish the cause or causes of death. A more specific justification is for criminal investigation, particularly when there is a suspicion of foul play and for medical investigation, when there is a threat to public health, sometimes to prevent infection. In addition to these, other reasons why autopsies are performed include the quality control of health institutions, including hospitals and mental institutions. Autopsies may confirm the accuracy of clinical diagnoses. Another purpose of autopsies is the documentation of disease rates and the identification of new diseases. The autopsy also has educational benefits for medical schools for use in their research and training.
Psychological autopsy is a medical examination investigative tool that helps to determine the decedent’s role in his or her demise. It is an investigative tool that helps to reconstruct the decedent’s background, personal relationships, habits, character, and coping patterns (Kurke & Scrivner 1995). Its purpose is to contribute to the understanding of the relationship between the decedent’s lifestyle and his death. It is a clinical investigative tool that assists in clarifying the manner of death whether suicide, homicide, or accidental death. It focuses on the psychological aspects of the death. Its primary purpose is to understand the circumstances and state of mind of the victim at the time of death. The procedure involves the reconstruction of the lifestyle and circumstances of the victim together with the details of behaviors and events that led to the death of the individual. Psychological autopsy is a postdictive analysis. It is speculative and probabilistic. However, it is the best in giving a logical understanding of the relationship between the deceased and the events and behaviors that preceded the death (Berman & Littman 1993). The accuracy of a psychological autopsy is contingent on available records and interviewees. Psychological autopsy refers to psychiatric consultation to the coroner’s office in assisting with the manner of death determinations. Forensic psychiatrists thoroughly examine the person’s lifestyle and the feelings, thoughts, and behaviors that existed during the days and weeks prior to death to better understand the psychological events of those last weeks and the circumstances that might have contributed to the death.
Polygraphs are various scientific recording devices designed to register a person’s bodily responses to being questioned (Brewer & Wilson 1995). Popularly known as a lie detector, the polygraph has been used chiefly in criminal investigations, although it is also used in employment and security screening practices. A polygraph is several instruments combined to simultaneously record changes in blood pressure, pulse, and respiration. The electrical conductivity of the skin’s surface can also be measured; increased sweat-gland activity reduces the skin’s ability to carry electrical current. Polygraphs are sensitive electronic monitoring devices that use ink writing pens to trace out different kinds of physiological responses on moving chart paper. Modern polygraphs are portable and can be made to fit inside an attaché case. The physiological reactions monitored are those governed by the autonomic nervous system, the branch of the nervous system that generally functions outside of conscious awareness and is sensitive to emotional states.
This device is used in testing honesty, dependability, and integrity. Because no machine can unerringly recognize when a person is lying, the polygraph results are used in conjunction with other evidence, observations, and information. The polygraph provide basis for an evaluation of whether or not the subject’s answers are truthful. This test has also been helpful in exonerating innocent persons accused of crimes.
As mentioned earlier polygraphs were used for employment purposes. In the United States, the use of it is forbidden by law. The Employee Polygraph Protection Act, which became effective December 27, 1988 ( Frierson, 1988; House of Representatives, 1988), outlaws most business uses of polygraphs, especially pre-employment polygraph exams used to screen out job applicants with a history of theft. Polygraphs were outlawed for three major reasons. First, there was a lack of scientifically acceptable research that showed that job applicants’ polygraph results were accurate predictors of their past or future theft. The pre-employment polygraph exam was never thoroughly and scientifically validated with job applicants.
It should be noted that although there is little evidence that the pre-employment polygraph actually works, either is there any research or evidence that it does not work. There simply is very little scientific research actual proofs. Second, the accuracy, fairness, and consistency of the polygraph exam appeared to be a function of the skill of the examiner. For example, more reliable admissions were obtained by licensed, highly trained examiners as opposed to less skilled examiners. The polygraph industry never established and enforced a universal standard of competence that had to be met by all polygraphers; consequently, examples of abuse were common and rampant. Finally, the pre-employment polygraph examination has been criticized as being unpleasant and stressful to applicants. Although polygraphers were often skilled at interrogation and getting theft admissions from applicants, this process tended to provoke strong negative feelings from applicants (Lykken 1981).
A contemporary method for distinguishing truth from deception is through the use of the polygraph, commonly known as the lie detector. The polygraph is controversial. Its defenders point to the confessions of countless criminals, the uncovering of spies and terrorists, and millions of dollars saved by American businesses through the polygraph’s ability to reveal employee theft. Critics of the polygraph argue that it is no more than quackery, claiming it unreliable and invalid, prone to brand thousands of innocent persons as guilty, inordinately coercive, and a violation of basic Constitutional rights protecting privacy and self incrimination.
Hypnosis is a special state of consciousness in which certain normal human capabilities are heightened while others fade into the background. About 90% of the population has some ability to enter a hypnotic state. Hypnosis can be combined with any type of therapy: supportive types, behavior modification, dynamic therapy, and others (Fromm & Shor 1979). When combined with dynamic types of therapy, that is, psychoanalytic methods, it is called dynamic hypnotherapy or hypnoanalysis; when combined with other therapies, it is called hypnotherapy. Hypnosis itself is not a therapy, although the relaxation that accompanies it can be beneficial. Hypnosis is altered state of consciousness and heightened responsiveness to suggestion; it may be induced in normal persons by a variety of methods and has been used occasionally in medical and psychiatric treatment. Forensic hypnosis is the process of hypnotizing a witness of a crime to extract needed information to be used as evidence in court or help solving the crime (Encarta Online 2003).
Most states in the US have refused to admit as evidence information gained by hypnosis, its use in legal situations has continued to grow. In 1983 the state of Massachusetts established strict guidelines for the use of hypnosis. This includes the following guidelines. A record must be established of what the witness knew prior to the use or attempted use of hypnosis. A witness will be allowed to testify to his or her present memory of events prior to hypnosis only if that record has been made. The court defines “hypnotically aided testimony” as testimony by a witness to a fact that became available following hypnosis. Hypnotically aided testimony not remembered before hypnosis will not be admissible unless corroborated by tangible evidence and a case for independent reliability can be made. The party that uses hypnosis must make disclosure that hypnosis or its attempted use was employed. The court also recognizes that on occasion the hypnotist need not be a licensed psychiatrist or psychologist. He must, however, be qualified in the use of hypnosis and independent of the investigation of the crime. In some situations a person other than the hypnotist and the subject, for example a parent of a child may be present before, during and after the hypnosis.
Facial composites provide valuable visual information to identify suspects in a crime. Witnesses describe a suspect first by a cognitive interview and then selecting facial features from a computerized facial composite system. Facial composites are a process of remembering or reconstructing the assailant’s face through different methods. The memory of any witness should be sharp and he/she should be honest enough so that no innocent person will be involved in such task (Brewer & Wilson 1995).
Although facial composites can be helpful for investigative psychologist, and bringing an accused to justice, it may be costly and a source of inaccuracy during investigation. The witness may mistakenly identify someone innocent to the crime. It might be due to the time of the day the crime happened or how far the witness when he/she saw the crime. The witness may also is unsure or has problems remembering the facial features or characteristics of the accused. Lastly the witness may be someone paid by the accused to create a diversion to the investigation.
DNA fingerprinting is a method of identification that compares fragments of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). It is also known as DNA typing. DNA is the genetic material found within the cell nuclei of all living things. A DNA fingerprint is constructed by first extracting a DNA sample from body tissue or fluid such as hair, blood, or saliva. The sample is then segmented using enzymes, and the segments are arranged by size using a process called electrophoresis. The segments are marked with probes and exposed on X-ray film, where they form a characteristic pattern of black bars the DNA fingerprint. If the DNA fingerprints produced from two different samples match, the two samples probably came from the same person. Every person has a unique genetic makeup except for identical twins, which are genetically identical. This genetic variation among individuals has proven useful in courts of law, as it provides an identifying marker for each person, similar to the unique skin pattern on each person’s fingertip. Often, some tissue from an assailant, in the form of skin, blood, semen, hair, or saliva, remains on the victim or at the scene of a violent crime. DNA is extracted from this tissue and compared to a suspect’s DNA through a technique called DNA fingerprinting. DNA fingerprinting is gaining increasing appeal to the military, law enforcement and other governmental authorities, to gain evidence to establish the identity of a dead body, a missing person, a biological relative, or the perpetrator of a crime (The Columbia Encyclopedia 2004).
Identification of suspects through DNA fingerprinting is a tremendous technological breakthrough. Yet, like Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and other technologies, it is not always available to those who need it. The problems with DNA fingerprinting lie in the price tag and time frame, rather than in the technology itself. Most agencies can’t afford to use it in any but their most pressing cases. Anything that an agency or police department would find forensically useful may cost as much money to process, in addition to the fees associated with obtaining the expert witness testimony required by the court system, The Federal Bureau of Investigation will process DNA samples at a much lower cost, but because of its backlog of cases it may take more than a year to obtain the necessary information.
When conducting DNA fingerprinting questions that are asked include if there is an instance of accidental random match, if the DNA sample is planted or made up, if the person accused left the DNA sample at the exact time of the crime. If the DNA sample was left at the exact time of the crime does it mean the accused is guilty of the crime. This questions help in determining if DNA fingerprinting done is valid, needed, accurate, and can help in solving any crime. Such questions are asked to ensure that undergoing a DNA fingerprinting is not a waste of time.
The accuracy of DNA fingerprinting has been challenged for several reasons. First, because DNA segments rather than complete DNA strands are “fingerprinted,” a DNA fingerprint may not be unique; large-scale research to confirm the uniqueness of DNA fingerprinting test results has not been conducted. In addition, DNA fingerprinting is often performed in private laboratories that may not follow uniform testing standards and quality controls. Also, since human beings must interpret the test, human error could lead to false results (Kegley 1998).
DNA fingerprinting can be applied in fields like paleontology, archaeology, various fields of biology, and medical diagnostics. It has, for example, been used to match the goatskin fragments of the Dead Sea Scrolls. In biological classification, it can help to show evolutionary change and relationships on the molecular level, and it has the advantage of being able to be used even when only very small samples, such as tiny pieces of preserved tissue from extinct animals, are available. Such method is used in investigative psychology as a way to have a clearer description of the perpetrator or pinpoint the real suspect in a crime. The establishment of serious mental illness by a licensed psychologist can be used in demonstrating incompetency to stand trial, a technique which may be used in the insanity defense.
Among the above mentioned methods the most useful method is DNA fingerprinting. It is can bring a fast results and a higher chance of having accurate results. Compared to other methods such as polygraph, psychological autopsy, facial composites, and Forensic hypnosis DNA fingerprinting have a higher percentage of accuracy and there are lesser chances for mistakes. DNA fingerprinting although questioned and said to be not beneficial; can be of use to forensic and investigative psychologists in determining the suspect in a crime and proving someone’s innocence or proving someone’s guilt to a crime.
Conclusion
Psychology has been defined as the science of consciousness, or as the science of experience subjectively regarded. Psychology occupies different fields this include General Psychology, Physiological Psychology, Comparative Psychology, Psychology of individual differences, Industrial Psychology, Child Psychology, Educational Psychology, Abnormal Psychology, Dynamic Psychology, Clinical Psychology and Social Psychology. Psychology can be used in practical applications like health, education, business and law. Psychology can be used in solving crime this aspect of Psychology is called Forensic psychology.
Forensic psychology focuses on the law and the different aspects and details of it. Criminal Psychology or Forensic psychology applies psychological knowledge to the understanding, prediction and nature of crime and behavior related to crime. This area has become more and more important in the matter of eyewitness testimony. Part of Forensic psychology is Investigative Psychology. Investigative Psychology is the ways psychology can be used or integrated with the processes and procedures of criminal investigation. Investigative psychology uses methods like psychological autopsies, polygraphs, forensic hypnosis, facial composites, DNA testing.
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