EUROPEAN MODELS OF DEVELOPMENT
Introduction
Imperialism in its modern sense is associated primarily with different European nations. It can be said that the European expansion or imperialism was at its strongest and most influential with the birth of the European nation states between the 16th to 19th centuries. The greatest and most significant of all European imperialistic expansion was by the French and English. At the epoch of European expansion the most powerful nations were those which commanded the richest colonial fruits of native cultivation, Great Britain and France were the leaders for the expansion race (1982).
Principally, the main goal of this paper is to determine the key features of European models of development. Specifically, this paper will give emphasis on the context of imperialism and its development.
European Imperialism
Imperialism refers to the process in which agents of an expanding society or nation gain inordinate influence or control over the vitals of weaker societies ( 1968). More specifically, imperialism can be defined as a set of circumstances where a dominant culture or nation with superior economic and political might exerts and expands its interests on another nation to further its own social, economic and political interests.
The first great wave of European empire-building was based on the extension of military and naval power and was essentially commercial in nature. It began with the sea explorations of the Portuguese and Spanish in the second half of the fifteenth century. A number of innovations in the sciences of navigation, geography, and astronomy, as well as in shipbuilding and firearms, combined to alter significantly the technological balance between the European and non-European worlds (1986).
Adventurers and conquistadors went forth, and in their wake went Europe’s merchants, quickly seizing upon opportunities to increase their business and profits. In turn, Europe’s governments perceived the possibilities for increasing their own power and wealth. Commercial companies were chartered and financed, with military and naval expeditions frequently sent out after them to ensure political control of overseas territories. Gradually great colonial empires were established by the various maritime powers of Western Europe.
Consequently, the nineteenth century was the Golden Age of the British Empire. The other European countries followed in the final quarter of the nineteenth century, when the great scramble for colonies started, which is known as modern imperialism. The distribution of the world was completed by 1900 and only then did the period of full colonialism start, the era of Europe’s actual domination of the earth. As early as 1945 this era came to an end. In 1950 the decolonization of Asia was almost completed. In 1960 the decolonization of Africa was in full swing, and by 1975 the colonial era was over.
In this history the Netherlands played a fairly significant role. It participated in the exploration of Asia ( 1985). In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, it enjoyed great commercial expansion through its trading companies, whose world stretched from the Cape of Good Hope to Japan, and from the Gold Coast to Brazil. After the Napoleonic times, the Dutch activities were restricted almost entirely to Indonesia or, more specifically, to Java.
The first phase of this new period, which lasted from 1815 to 1870, may therefore be called the “Java era.” The Netherlands was very deeply involved in the administrative and economic exploitation of this Garden of Eden–more deeply, it would seem, than any other colonial power in any other colony. The rest of the Archipelago, however, largely remained beyond its scope. With the rise of industrialization and modern imperialism, the Netherlands also altered its course. It followed the fluctuation of the world economy and world politics. As a result, the years 1870-1900 constituted a second phase, a period of transition. This was characterized by new economic exploitations, particularly on Sumatra, and an accelerated establishment of Dutch rule in what was called the “Buitengewesten” (Outer Districts). Around 1900 this process had been completed (1989).
European powers carved up the world for material gain, more human power, natural resources, trading privileges and strategic advantage. It is undeniable that the search for lucrative yet secure overseas investment played a very great part in the European urge to acquire colonies at the end of the nineteenth century ( 1961).
Following world division by European powers a variety of methods were adopted to facilitate the colony’s greatest economic potential. These
ranged from peaceful intervention, association and agreements with the political elite or local rulers, direct intervention with the garrisoning of troops and a rule of force, to a combination of these and exporting European settlers to transplant the indigenous population. European imperialism was facilitated by dollar and gunboat diplomacy, ideological suasion, conquest and rule or by planting colonies of its own people abroad (1999). The governments of North and South America, Australia and New Zealand were established for transplanted Europeans who tended to overwhelm indigenous peoples, pushing them aside, absorbing them or destroying them all together.
Imperialism is defined as the “domination of one country by another in order to economically exploit the dominated” ( 1968) concept; firstly military, economic and ideological domination and secondly exploitation of the dominated country through trade and investment, exploitation meaning the appropriation of one countries wealth by enterprises based in another. Imperialism does not necessarily mean that the dominating country has incorporated the weaker into its empire; Britain for example was effectively a colonial power over Chile although it never officially annexed it (1992).
Some Marxists such as Lenin consider Imperialism to be simply a very
advanced stage of capitalism, the expansion of the Imperial power in
order to acquire new markets to buy and sell goods. Lenin dubbed
Imperialism “the world capitalist system”. Lenin theorizes that “imperialism existed before the latest stage of capitalism and even before capitalism” but still that Imperialism is basically and advanced stage of capitalism. (1917) Lenin argued that the heart of Imperialism was monopoly capitalism, a stage in the evolution of free competition (, 1983).
Once they had a foothold in their economies the European powers
(especially Belgium in the Free Congo) established Plunder economies;
expropriating the land of the indigenous population and exploiting the
indigenous population for labor. There was also variations over methods of colonization; with Britain for example being a predominantly informal imperialist power, maintaining control through political and economic functions without actually taking over political decision making, although as a country is dependant on its economy Britain as the main trading partner colonial power undoubtedly wielded massive political influence.
The British government forever trying to make its empire cost effective did not actually first go into its colonies; instead giving private companies Parliamentary mandates to venture into a potential colony. Britain did though ultimately gain de facto sovereignty over most of her colonies. The great rush by the European powers for colonies could also be attributed to the Second Industrial revolution, which although there was a general depression brought startling technological advances and mechanized factory production meaning goods were produced more efficiently and at a lower cost due to the low cost of wages (attributed to laying off of staff due to mechanization of machinery
and the depression).
The resultant manufacturing boom of the revolution necessitated finding new markets to sell the goods and produce raw materials which explains the popularity of Imperialism with the middle and upper classes in particular, by 1906 the Primrose League in Britain (a colonial lobbying group) had 1.7 million members primarily made up of members from the financial sector, commerce, the military and the government.
The finding of new markets was necessitated by the imposition of
tariffs on goods by many other European countries as a result of the
depression. This domination of the colonial power over the colony could be seen to gain its legitimacy from civilization. There is a popular notion that the white Europeans are a superior race. Social justified imperialism as the natural superiority of (the white races asserting itself over) the so called backwards people of Africa and Asia. Certain imperialists’ spoke of the white mans burden, that burden being to have to civilize the savage non-white world.
Survival of the fittest was also said to apply to nations who must
struggle to survive; success in the international battle for colonies
would measure and develop national mettle. It was seen as the duty of the white man to civilize the rest of the world, to export to these colonies all the things that made Europe, and in particular Britain great. The famous British explorer saw that in order for commerce and Christianity to work In Africa the white man was needed; although not advocating white settlement it was not clear how commerce was to thrive in a savage land without it or without at least a white managerial class to organize it.
Imperialism can also be largely attributed to Nationalism. Having an
empire was like a yardstick to greatness. This can be demonstrated by both Germany and Italy, states that had unified in 1870 and 1861 respectively. Germany was a fierce rival of Britain, out producing Britain and France combined in terms of steel, she felt inferior though because of her lack of empire. Germans often talked of a place in the sun. The Nationalist element of Imperialism can also be demonstrated with Italy, whose armies were defeated in Abyssinia in1896 bringing shame on the whole nation. Mussolinis reinvasion of Abyssinia in 1935 can be attributed to a need to prove national superiority (and white superiority over the blacks).
The Spread of Christianity and its associated values and culture were also another large aspect of Imperialism; thousands of Catholic and Protestant missionaries went to Africa, Asia and India in the name of God to win converts. Missionaries though went to the colonies not just to spread Christianity into Africa but to minimize the abuse of the indigenous population by the Europeans. The Missionaries were also a driving force in the attempt to end the remaining Arab slave trade in Africa.
The famous explorer Dr David Livingston summed up the
the key features of imperialism development as Christianity, Commerce and Civilization. Imperialism sharpened the rivalries of the Great Powers, whilst solidifying international alliances, competing colonial interests throughout Africa brought Britain and France to the brink of warfare following the Fished incident in 1898 as well as France and Britain to war against Germany and the Austro-Hungarian empire following the First Moroccan crisis in 1905 (1996).
It can be said the development of imperialism within European countries has become influential in the world. The European imperialism has been able to have positive effects and this include raising living standards
of colonies by providing infrastructure change. For example, the Development of imperialism has been able to change the conditions of African society by providing the infrastructure on which the progress was made, with fairly efficient administration, a network of roads, railways and basic health and education services (1974). Most railroads, ports, electrical power plants, roads, schools, hospitals and water systems that are now throughout Asia and Africa were built under European tutelage during the colonial era ( 1974).
In the 1850′s the great age of British railway building was taking place in India, Argentina and Brazil, financed entirely by British capital
(Thompson, 1966). The era of British Imperialistic expansion, trade and wealth this generated had the secondary effect of bringing about an extended period of peace to the world. British naval power and its position as the world’s centre of trade and finance enabled it to impose the Pox Britannica or British peace, discouraging major war by threatening economic embargoes (1999). This infrastructure and trade management changed the living standards of the indigenous population then, and this change has flowed through to the present day.
The European “carve up” of the globe led to the creation of nation states in Africa, Asia and the Americas, providing definable boundaries to European powers and their colonial subjects. The most obvious and direct political consequence of European imperialism was the introduction of the European State system throughout the globe (1970). This change provided clearly defined property boundaries, ending periods of uncertainty over land, the extent of which can still be seen, with nations “created” by European imperialism still in existence.
The creation of a political infrastructure in a colony by European
powers was in many cases the seed of democracy for a number of colonies, albeit not immediate. The European colonial system provided a system for economic and political stability, which southern hemisphere countries have discovered after independence, is essential for political and economic stability. The models of colonial government evolved somewhat slower but in parallel to their European counterparts, bringing democracy to a number of European colonies.
Conclusion
The European imperialistic expansion and colonisation on the
world was considered as dramatic and still evident, long after the last empire had crumbled. Today virtually all countries that comprise the Southern
Hemisphere are direct descendants of European empires and colonialism (1995).
European Imperialism changed the face of the world, as we know today. The widespread projection of European influences changed governmental structure, perceived nationality, language, religion, warfare, dispute resolution and trade. These changes provided both benefits and adversity for the indigenous colonial populations. European imperialism changed the way the world thought and behaved, such as managing international conflict by trade embargoes to resolve conflict, a strategy that is still used today. While there are many benefits the indigenous populations enjoyed under European imperialism, such as democratic governments, who is to say these colonies would not have achieved these under their own power, given the time and freedom to determine their own future.
Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com
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