The reason why I believe my hypothesis is topical and worth considering is because we all need to stop smoking if we want to preserve our health. And this warning is not applicable only to smokers but to the general public as well.
It is no secret that smoking causes preventable death and disease. ‘Cigarettes cause more deaths than cocaine, auto accidents, AIDS, alcohol, heroin, fire, suicide and homicide combined’ (Reynolds, P., 1998).
Reynolds, Patrick (1998) wrote in Anti-Smoking.Org official website that smoking caused 400,000 deaths every year in the United States alone. That equates to at least 1,200 lives per day. The resulting effect contributes to a billion annual loss in productivity and additional health care costs.
In the international scene, smoking attributes to two to three million deaths each year. There are more or less 1.2 billion smokers worldwide. World Health Organization estimate a staggering 500 million smokers or an equivalent of 9% of the world’s population will die due to smoking.
If these findings do not alarm us, then the fact that the tragic effects of smoking are not exclusive to smokers alone but extend to the innocent non-smoking public should send warning bells to our minds.
In a recent study conducted, it was revealed that second-hand smoke or passive smoking is the third major cause of lung cancer in the United States. The health risks due to exposure of second-hand smoke also known as ‘environmental tobacco smoke’ (ETS) are serious. The Scientific Committee on Tobacco and Health concludes that:
second-hand smoke can cause of lung cancer, long-term exposure increases the risk by 20-30%
second-hand smoke can lead to heart disease
second-hand smoke causes asthma in children, and it could worsen the condition for those afflicted with asthma
Aside from the long-term effects, it was found out that second-hand smoke can trigger heart attacks in some people after being exposed for a short time. People with coronary heart disease and coronary artery disease were advised to take precautionary measures to avoid indoor smoke.
Tobacco companies’ aggressive advertising in the product has depicted smoking as a lifestyle for the elite. Reynolds (1998) stated that they spend as much as over billion annually on advertising to create this image. But the truth of the matter is that tobacco does not offer a healthier or more desirable lifestyle. Smoking has contributed to a number of preventable deaths, serious illnesses and a host of economic and social problems among them is the rising problem due to secondhand smoke.
Smoking therefore affects all of us. Finding ways to stop it such as the use of SHOCK ADVERTISING by the media would not only benefit the smokers but the public as well.
V. Design and Methodology
I. Description, outlining the kind of research I will conduct to complete this project (library research, internet research, interviews, observations and ethnographies).1,Library Research - this is the most basic way to complete this project since the library offers an excellent resource and access to all books that contain studies of similar kind to this project.2.Internet Research – the internet provides more exhaustive and comprehensive information on tobacco, health effects and shock advertising results.3,Interviews – Conversation with different levels of formality. This can involve small talk to long interviews. Talking to people who actually smoke and people who don’t, hearing their views on utilizing shock advertising to curb smoking would add another slant to the study, providing a more direct way to gather information from people who are actually affected by shock advertising.4.Observations – Direct, first-hand observation of daily behavior. This can include participant observation. Watching, observing people on a day to day basis especially smoker-friends reaction to shock advertising would be indicative of the effectiveness of said strategy.5.Ethnologies – this is a more holistic research approach as it combines interviews and participant observation, allowing me to observe people at the same time talk to them regarding pertinent issues on shock advertising to combat smoking.
2. Research Methods
There are several methods available for conducting research. Among these, the most suitable for the kind of investigation being envisaged are the survey and case study approaches. While the exact details of the approaches to be followed will be finalized after initiating the research process, broadly the following will be the approaches to be employed.
Research paradigms and design
The research approach can be either positivist, in which the observer merely records the results of observations without participating in the process or interpreting the results. This approach is ideally suited for research into physical phenomena. The naturalist or constructivist approach requires the observer to play an active role by interpreting the observations and sometimes even influencing them. This approach has several variations and is useful in investigating social phenomena. . (Krauss, 2005)
Research paradigms can also be grouped into quantitative and qualitative approaches. Quantitative approaches are generally more suited for physical phenomena that can be objectively observed and measured, while qualitative methods are more appropriate for social and behavioral research. However, social subjects also employ a certain amount of statistical and quantitative methods to draw conclusions. Thus while the basic research itself is qualitative, the analysis of the responses can be quantitative to establish the extent to which a particular view is being felt and expressed.
Methods to be employed
· The current research would require the assessment of the impact of social factors on various aspects of marketing campaigns. Such an assessment can be made only through the collection of individual responses to various situations and observation of the impact of such reactions on the decisions and performance of the shock advertisement. Specifically, this research will focus on anti-smoking campaigns.
Primary data
In order to understand these functions, the survey method would be the most suitable for the following reasons:
· The survey method would enable the gathering of opinions and perspectives of various individuals involved.
· It would be economical and would form a convenient method of quickly collecting the necessary data
· The survey method can be tailored to reflect the reactions of a representative cross section of the population through careful selection of respondents.
· Both quantitative and qualitative assessments are possible through the survey method.
The survey method, also known as the questionnaire method, will be used in gathering the data for this study. Surveys are the most common form of research method for collection of primary data (Commonwealth of Learning, 2000). One of its purpose is to describe, e.g., to count the frequency of some event or to assess the distribution of some variables such as proportion of the population of different age groups, sex, religion, castes and languages, knowledge, attitude and adoption of practices about particular issues, and other information of similar nature about the population (Commonwealth of Learning, 2000). The descriptive survey of the population is valuable in understanding the audience, and in the definition of the existence and magnitude of the problems, and the survey data are also helpful in determining cause and effect relationships between variables (Commonwealth of Learning, 2000). Further, the preliminary descriptive survey results are proven to be useful for planning of more sophisticated survey studies with a view to identify areas where problems occur or where changes are required, to understand why people behave in a certain manner and what can be done to provide alternate solutions to the problems, where an attempt is made to understand the relationships between different variables, and the purpose of survey is to diagnose or analyze the situation rather than just to describe the situation (Commonwealth of Learning, 2000). Surveys may also be done to measure the extent and nature of effect and the exposed impact of a project to the population for a reasonable length of time (Commonwealth of Learning, 2000).
Administration of the survey to shock tactics in anti-smoking campaigns
The survey can be conducted through a variety of means including
· unstructured personal interviews,
· structured interviews with the help of questionnaires,
· administration of questionnaires through mail or other indirect means that do not involve personal contact, the questionnaires.
Again, the collection and analysis of data may be quantitative or qualitative. In quantitative methods selection of samples may be through random sampling, stratified sampling or other similar methods.
In case the survey is done through questionnaires sent to the respondents rather than through a personal interview, the method of dispatching the questionnaires and receiving the responses also become important.
In the present case, a combination of questionnaires would serve the purpose ideally. The selection of the sample can be done through random sampling or stratified random sampling. It would be best if the questionnaire is administered through mail.
Considering the above, a suitable survey through open or closed ended questionnaires will be conducted on a randomly selected cross section of the population.
Secondary data
The research will also make use of secondary sources and published research into the subject to gather additional data required. The secondary data will be collected from published sources including government and official publications, published research work in related areas, and the theoretical position from scholarly articles and books.
Case study
If possible the research would also analyze one or two cases to understand the impact of shock advertising in social marketing operating in anti-smoking campaigns.
V. Sources and Acquisition of Data
1. Start with Library research supplemented with Internet research. These two resources are the most accessible. Also, they provide me a clear background on the matter, the issues I might confront, what questions to ask, how to observe and other ways to gather pertinent information.
2. A web page was created inviting both smokers and non-smokers of all age ranges to take part in an on-line questionnaire that explored their responses to anti-smoking campaigns. Using Likert questionnaire, the impact, if any, had resulted from various anti-smoking campaigns, all of which use significantly high levels of shock tactics as a means of reducing and preventing the use of tobacco products would be determined.
3. Members of the public will be able to take part in the study for a span two weeks. Data from said survey will be collected and evaluated by comparing responses and examining any common themes.
4. Promote the website and cajole participants to answer the online questionnaire.
5. In-depth interviewing
6. Discovery of local beliefs and perceptions.
7. Problem-oriented research. Focusing on the problem and determining how to solve it effectively.
8. Consult similar case studies conducted in the past
VI. Method of Analysis
The data will be analyzed using the model identified by Glaser & Strauss (1967), and which uses the “constant comparison method” and analytic induction to determine common themes. The consistency of findings throughout the different sample groups would suggest the behavior patterns that are significantly robust and would determine if shock tactics in anti-smoking campaigns have been essentially effective.
VII. Form of Presentation
Written form supplemented with pictures and appendices.
VIII. Timetable – Research planning, demonstrating an awareness of the need of planning and the timescale of the research.
Timescale would be anywhere from three to four weeks. First week would be allocated to information gathering using the library and the internet. This would determine the scope of the study and proposal. The succeeding weeks would be done formulating questionnaires, creating websites, choosing participants and inviting applicants then actually doing interviews.
Observation would also be implemented along with interviews as it would allow me to be directly in contact with concerned individuals. Third week will be spent on writing down the information and completing the study. If things need to be revised or some methodologies need to be done again then these activities can be allocated on the fourth week, depending on the number of revisions/editing necessary to make the study very comprehensive.
May
June
July
August
Problem identification
Literature Review
Research Design
Choice of Methodology
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Writing up Draft
Editing
Final Document
Blinding of Document
IX. The limitations
Problems that I expect to encounter would be:
1. Promoting the website to attract the right volunteer-participants. The more participants the more indicative of the populace’s sentiments on shock advertisements the study would be.
2. Unwilling participants. Some people are not so enthusiastic in answering questions as the others.
3. Delays in doing research work due to lack of information. Books or internet sources sometimes do not provide in-depth discussion on the matter of using shock advertisements to bolster anti-smoking campaigns.
4. Re-writing interview questions to better fit the topic. Writing the questionnaire would take time especially if there are several factors to be considered to arrive at a fair representation of the views of those who are pro or against of smoking.
5. Inconsistencies between website survey results and results of similar studies written in the past. Actual results may not necessarily be the same with what is written in books or internet sites.
6. Difficulty in obtaining information due to lack of participants, lack of books or information on the topic of shock advertising as effective anti-smoking campaign
7. Taking all necessary factors into consideration. Sometimes it can be confusing which factors to consider especially if the topic is broad and the study needs to be comprehensive.
8. Incurring delays in actual writing of proposal due to other unforeseen factors. Delays from other unexpected factors related or not related to study would have to be anticipated such as when experiencing downtime for the website.
9. Appendix One: Questionnaires for Smokers and Non-Smokers
Participants, after having given details that identified their smoking status, were then asked to respond to one of two questionnaires: one for smokers and a different one for non-smokers. The sample groups were then asked to respond to questions on a scale of 1 (low) to 5 (high). In addition, participants were able to expand, justify, or express further details and/or opinion through the provision of text boxes. The questions concerning the two advertisements were the same for both groups.
Questionnaire One
Smokers Responses to Shock Tactics in Anti-Smoking Campaigns
1. Please give the following details: Age ….. Sex ……………
2. How long have you been smoking? Years ….. Months …..
3. How many cigarettes do you smoke per day? …………………
4. Have you considered quitting smoking? Yes No Not sure
5. Have you ever attempted to stop smoking? Yes No
6. What is your general opinion towards anti-smoking shock advertising?
7. Is there a particular advert that has had an impact on you? If so, please describe the advert and the way in which it affected you.
8. Do you think anti-smoking shock advertising campaigns help people to stop smoking?
9. Do you believe that anti-smoking shock advertising campaigns influence a person’s decision on whether or not to smoke?
10 What, if anything, do you believe should be done to prevent and reduce the prevalence of smoking?
Questionnaire Two
Non-Smokers Responses to Shock Tactics in Anti-Smoking Campaigns
1. Please give the following details: Age ….. Sex ……………
2. Have you ever smoked? If yes, please indicate the following:
Length of time you smoked …………………….
What caused you to stop smoking …………………………….
3. What is your general opinion towards anti-smoking shock advertising?
4. Is there a particular advert that has had an impact on you? If so, please describe the advert and the way in which it affected you.
5. Do you think anti-smoking shock advertising campaigns help people to stop smoking?
6. Do you believe that anti-smoking shock advertising campaigns influence a person’s decision on whether or not to smoke?
7. Have anti-smoking shock advertising campaigns influenced your decision not to smoke?
8. What, if anything, do you believe should be done to prevent and reduce the prevalence of smoking?
Examples of Anti-smoking Advertisements (see Appendix One and Two)
After having looked at the two examples of recent anti-smoking advertisements, please choose your response :
1. It made me think again about smoking.
2. The use of shock tactics is not the best way to help people stop smoking or to prevent people from starting to smoke.
3. Shock tactics have become so common within anti-smoking campaigns that they have lost their impact.
4. These pictures scare me. They put me off smoking.
5. These pictures do not scare me. They do not make me want to stop smoking.
Appendix One: UK Campaign
Source: Downloaded from: < http://www.littlemanwhatnow.com/2007/01/disgraceful-nhs-anti-smoking-advert.html>
Appendix Two: “Cemetery.”
Source: Downloaded from:
< http://www.ohgizmo.com/2006/06/28/best-anti-smoking-advert-ever/>
Ⅹ.Bibliography:
These are the list of printed resources which I plan to consult for the research proposal:
AGNOSTELLI, G, Grube, J 2003, Tobacco counter-advertising: a review of the literature and a conceptual model for understanding effects. Journal of Health Communication, 8 (2): 107-127.
ANDREASEN, A 1994, Social marketing: definition and domain. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 13 (1): 109-114.
ASH (Action on Smoking and Health) 2006, Fact sheet no:19 tobacco advertising and promotion, < http://old.ash.org.uk/html/factsheets/html/fact19.html>
BAILY, C 2000, Smoking gun: three teens speak out, <http://teens.drugabuse.gov/stories/story_nic1.asp>
BIENER, L; Garth McCULLUM-KEELER, Amy L NYMAN. “Adults’ response to
Massachusetts anti-tobacco television advertisements: impact of viewer and advertisement characteristics.” Tobacco Control 2000;9:401–7
BORIO, G 2007 Tobacco timeline < http://www.tobacco.org/History/Tobacco_History.html>
CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION [1], National Center for
Health Statistics, NCHS definitions: cigarette smoking, <http:// www.cdc.gov/nchs/datash/nchsdefs/cigarettesmoking.htm>
CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION [2]. Annual Smoking-
Attributable Mortality, Years of Potential Life Lost, and Productivity Losses—United States, 1997–2001. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report [serial online]. 2005;54:625-628, <http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5425a1.htm>
CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION [3]. National youth risk behavior survey: 1991-2005. trends in the prevalence of cigarette use.” <http://www.cdc.gov/HealthyYouth/yrbs/pdf/trends/2005_YRBS_Cigarette_Use.pdf>
Chassin, L, Presscon, C & Sherman, S. 1984. “Cognitive and social influence factors in adolescent smoking cessation.” Addictive Behaviors, 9 (4): 383-390.
Commonwealth of Learning. (2000). Manual for Educational Media Researchers:
Knowing your Audience. Vancouver, Canada: Commonwealth Educational Media Centre for
Asia (CEMCA).
Dahl, D, Frankenberger, K & Manchanda R 2003 “Does It Pay to Shock? Reactions to Shocking and Nonshocking Advertisement Content among University Students.” Journal of Advertising Research vol. 43 pp 268-280. Cambridge University Press.
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH (Australian) 2005 Smoking Statistics Harm Caused by Tobacco, < http://www.quitwa.com/QuitResources/SmokingStatistics/>
HEALTH PROMOTION AGENCY 2002, Every cigarette is doing you damange, online article <http://www.healthpromotionagency.org.uk/work/Publicrelations/PressReleases/everycig.htm>
McKENNA, Jeffrey W. and Kymber N. WILLIAMS. 1993. Crafting Effective Tobacco
Counter-Advertisements: Lessons from a Failed Campaign Directed at Teenagers. Public Health Reports, 108 (1): 85-89.
Peyser, A 2008 “Ads Turn TV Into An ‘Eww’ Tube”, New York Post. <http://www.nypost.com/seven/03172008/news/columnists/ads_turn_tv_into_an_ewwtube_102351.htm>
Reynolds, P 1998 The problem, media release, Anti Smoking Organization, <http://www.anti-smoking.org/theproblem.htm>
Social Marketing Institute, Success stories, online article: “Success Stories.”
< http://www.social-marketing.org/success/cs-nationalwic.html>
Smith, K & Stutts, M 1999. “Factors that influence adolescents to smoke, Journal of Consumer Affairs, vol 33 (2): 321-357.
Smith, K & Stutts, M 2003. “Effects of short-term cosmetic
versus long-term health fear appeals in anti-smoking advertisements on the smoking behavior of adolescents” Journal of Consumer Behavior, 3 (2): 157-170.
Sutton SR 1982, “Fear-arousing communications: a critical examination of theory and
research.” In: Eiser JR, ed. Social psychology and behavioral medicine. London, Wiley, 303–37.
Sutton, S 1992, “Shock tactics and the myth of the inverted U.” Br J Addiction vol. 87:517–19
Smoking and tobacco use, website article, Center for Disease Control and Prevention, USA, <http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/osh/index.htm>
Vigorito, A & Curry, T 1998, “Marketing Masculinity: Gender
Identity and Popular Magazines,” Sex Roles: A Journal of Research vol 39. No. 1-2
Wolburg, J 2006 “College Students’ Responses to Antismoking Messages:
Denial, Defiance, and Other Boomerang Effects.” Journal of Consumer Affairs vol 40 no. 2. American Council on Consumer Interests, Gale Group.
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION 2008 Cigarette Consumption, <http://www.who.int/tobacco/en/atlas8.pdf>
Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com
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