Part Two: Application


 


Organizational Behavior and Individual Behavior


          In this section, I will present a definition of organization and organizational behavior. The responsibilities and roles of a manager will be discussed in this section. Three related aspects of individuals that affect behavior in organizations – perceptions, attitudes, and personality will also be discussed.


What is an Organization?


          Sims (2002) defines an organization as a system of two or more people, engaged in a cooperative action, trying to reach an agreed-upon purpose. Organizations are systems of structured social interactions featuring the use of incentives, communication systems, and authority relations (p. 1).


Organizational Behavior


          Organizational behavior is the actions and attitudes of people in organizations. The field of organizational behavior is the body of knowledge derived from the study of these actions and attitudes. Organizational behavior can help managers identify problems , determine how to correct them, and establish whether the changes would make a difference. Such knowledge can help people better understand situations they face in the workplace and change their behavior so that their performance and the organization’s effectiveness increase (Sims 2002).


          The study of organizational behavior is important to a manager. As an employee who aims to be a manager someday, I need to be prepared to deal with issues pertaining to organizational behavior. The organization is made up of different people with different backgrounds, talents, skills, and behaviors. As a manager, I need to be able to use and develop their talents and skills and be able to manage or change their behaviors in order to achieve the goals and objectives of the organization. Organizational behavior affects everyone in the organization. It is important to leaders, managers, employees and even consumers. Having a deep understanding of organizational behavior make us more effective leaders, managers and employees. Managers today need to find better ways to manage the behavior of the people in organizations.


Three Levels of Analysis


          There are three focus of analysis in the field of organizational behavior. People in inside the organizations are increasingly working in teams and groups. These people whether they are part of teams and groups or alone both influence and are influenced by their work environment. Therefore, organizational behavior focuses on three distinct levels of analysis – individuals, groups, and organizations.


          It is important to understand these levels of analysis in order for the manager to fully comprehend the complex dynamics of behavior in organizations. At the individual level, the manager must be aware of the perceptions, attitudes and personality of the members of the organization. At the group level, the manager must understand how people communicate with each other and coordinate their activities in work groups and teams. At the organizational level, the manager needs to understand the organization – its structure, operations, environments, and the effect or processes and policies on the employees. As a manager I need to understand the issues in different levels that affect organizational behavior. Understanding and proper management of the individual, group and organizational issues and processes is an important task of a manager. The manager must pay attention to these in order to create a work environment that helps everyone to reach his or her potential.


The Management Functions


          The manager plays an important role in the success of the organization. The manager acts as a leader that leads the people in the organization to the achievement of organizational goals and objectives. As a future manager, I need to understand the nature of managerial work in order to prepare myself. I also need to understand how managerial work affects organizational behavior. The common managerial functions are discussed below.


1. Planning – the planning function involves defining and setting goals, figuring out ways fro achieving these goals, and developing a comprehensive hierarchy of plans to integrate and coordinate activities to reach the goals. Setting goals keeps the work to be done in its proper perspective and helps organizational members keep their attention on what is most important (Sims 2002).


          Planning is considered the central function of management, and it pervades everything a manager does. In planning, a manager looks to the future, and then looks for ways in achieving the goals. The decisions of the manager have a big impact on the entire organization.


2. Organizing – organizing is the process of making sure the necessary human and physical resources are available to carry out a plan and achieve organizational goals. Organizing includes all managerial activities that translate required planned activities into a structure of tasks and authority. The organizing function involves designing the responsibility and authority of each individual and determining which of these jobs will be grouped in specific departments (Sims 2002).


          The organizing function is very critical. The manager needs to have a clear understanding of the company’s resources, structure, goals and processes in order to effectively organize the strategies in achieving organizational goals. As a future manager, it is important for me to be able to understand the organization structure, the people in the organization, the processes and the objectives in order for me to organize people – determine their responsibilities.


3. Leading – the leading function involves the manager in close day-to-day contact with individuals and groups. The leading function is uniquely personal and interpersonal. Leading is influencing others to achieve organizational objectives (Sims 2002).


          A good manager is a good leader. A leader needs to lead people, to influence them to contribute to the success of the organization. As a leader, a manager must be able to motivate, communicate, and influence people in the organization to reach their personal goals and to work towards the achievement of organizational goals.


4. Controlling – the controlling function includes activities that managers undertake to ensure that actual outcomes are consistent to ensure that actual outcomes are consistent with planned outcomes. Controlling is ensuring that performance conform to plans (Sims 2002).


          The manager is the one that monitors the progress of the organization’s performance. The manager needs to determine if the organization and its people are meeting the planned objectives.


Perception


          Understanding perceptions is important in organizations because it affects how people act. Individuals use five senses to experience the environment: sight, touch, hearing, taste, and smell. Organizing the information from the environment so that it makes sense is called perception. Perception is a cognitive process. Perception helps individuals select, organize, store, and interpret stimuli into a meaningful and coherent picture of the world. Because each person gives his own meaning to stimuli, different individuals “see” the same thing in different ways (Nicholson, 1998 cited in Sims 2002).


          Managers must recognize that perceptual differences exist. Each person select various cues that influence his perceptions of people, objects, and symbols. People interpret the behavior of other in the context of the setting in which they find themselves. As a manager, I need to understand that perceptions vary from person to person and sometimes our perceptions are wrong. As a manager I need to be objective and to avoid to act purely on perceptions. I need to look at the different sides of every situation and I must always avoid to be led by wrong perceptions. As a manager, I need to be wary of the obstacles to accurate perceptions. These are:


o   Stereotyping – stereotypes are judgments of others that are based on group membership. Such attributes as sex, race, ethnic group and are the basis of commonly held stereotypes (Sims 2002). As a manager, I must not stereotype people in the organization.


o   First Impression Error – people tend to remember what they perceive first about a person. First impression error means that people observe a very brief piece of a person’s behavior in the first encounter and assume that this behavior reflects what the person is really like (Sims 2002). First impression errors can have a negative effect on the working environment as it affects how people deal with each other. The first impressions that we have for people in the organization can be the basis for long-term employment relationships.


Attitudes


          Attitudes are determinants of behavior because they are linked with perception, personality, and motivation. An attitude is a positive or negative feeling or mental state of readiness, learned and organized through experience, that exerts specific influence on a person’s response to people, objects, and situations (Sims 2002).


          This definition of attitude has implications for managers:


o   Attitudes are learned


o   Attitudes define people’s predispositions toward given aspects of the world


o   Attitudes provide emotional basis for people’s interpersonal relations and identification with others


o   Attitudes are organized and are close to the core of personality.


          Like perceptions, The manager must also understand attitudes. People have different attitudes and these affect their relationship with others and how they handle situations. Attitudes are persistent and enduring but is can also be changed. A manager must recognize the different parts of attitude. These are:


o   Cognitive – perceptions and beliefs about the object of attitude; a person’s perception of the distinguishing features of the object


o   Affective – evaluation and feelings about the object pf the attitude; a person’s feeling of like or dislike for the object


o   Behavioral Intentions – how the person wants to behave and what the person says about his behavior toward the object (Breckler 1984)


          As a manager, I will often find myself responsible for changing employee attitudes because their existing attitudes hinder them from performing adequately. Managers must remember the attitude change happens because of the following:


o   Something persuades the person to change his attitudes


o   The norms of a social group important to the person affects his attitudes


o   The person becomes uncomfortable with some aspects of his beliefs about certain things (Sims 2002)


 


 


 


 


 


How Can Managers Change Employee Attitudes?


          A manager must be able to understand attitudes and their impact to the people in the organization. A manager must be able to persuade employee attitudes to make them more productive. Managers can make use of the following strategies in facilitating change in employee attitudes.


1. Give Employees Feedback – employees must be made aware of their negative attitudes if they are to change. The manager must talk to the employee about the negative attitude. The employee must understand that the attitude has negative consequences for the individual and the organization.


2. Accentuate Positive Conditions – employees tend to have positive attitudes toward the things they do well. The manager must make sure that the working conditions are as pleasant as possible (Sims 2002).


3. Provide Consequences – Employees tend to repeat activities or events followed by positive consequences. On the other hand, they tend to avoid things followed by negative consequences. Encourage and reward employees with positive attitudes. Try to keep negative attitudes from developing and spreading (Sims 2002).


Personality


          Personality can be defined as a set of traits, characteristics, and predispositions held by a person. Personality can also be defined as the unique and relatively stable pattern of behavior, thoughts, and emotions shown bu individuals (Sims 2002).


 


Personality Theories


          There are three major classes of personality theories that seek to explain how personality is acquired and how it develops.


1. Cognitive Theory – describes people as developing their thinking patterns as their lives unfold. A person’s patterns of thinking affect how the person interprets and internalizes life’s events. People move through a series of cognitive development stages. The stages begin shortly after birth with the reflexive behavior of the infant and proceed through increasingly more complex modes of perceptions and interpretation of events in the child’s environment (Sims 2002).


2. Social Learning – assumes that a child was a blank sheet of paper, shaped almost entirely by the social environment.


3. Biological Theories – describe the ways in which the members of the human species develop common characteristics as a result of evolution.


 


Five Dimensions of Personality


● Extraversion – this dimension captures one’s comfort level with relationships.


● Aggreeableness – this dimension refers to an individual’s propensity to defer to others.


● Conscientiousness – this dimension is a measure of reliability.


● Emotional Stability – this dimension taps a person’s ability to withstand stress.


● Openness to Experience – addresses an individual’s range of interests and fascination with novelty (Sims 2002).


 


Organization Development


            Organizational development (OD) has emerged as a management function on both the internal and external organizational fronts. Internally, employees demand rehumanization of the workplace and greater participation in decision-making, resulting in greater control over their work lives. This causes change within the organization. Externally, economic changes and pressures have forced organizations to adjust to a new marketplace. To meet this challenge, organizations have had to implement changes and take risks (Gilley and Eggland 1998).


            The goal of organizational development is personal, professional, and organizational growth. This growth is guided by a change agent, who acts as a medium in the dynamic process of OD. OD is a planned process as well, one that occurs within the organization over a long period of time. This process involves an action-research orientation in which the scientific method is applied to practical organizational problems. The objective is to develop the problem solving capabilities of the organizational participants. Organizational development is also inclusive. In order for an intervention to be effective, all members of the organization must be involved (Gilley and Eggland 1998). Organizational development is viewed as a planned, data-based approach to change, involving goal setting, action planning, implementation, monitoring, and taking corrective action when necessary. It is problem solving oriented in that it applies theory and research from a number of disciplines that solve organizational problems. OD is also a systems approach – both systemic and systematic – closely linking human resources and organizational potential to technology, structure, and management process. OD is a continuous process, an ongoing way of managing organizational change processes that. Over time, become a way of organizational life (Phelps 1988 cited in Gilley and Eggland 1988). Organizational development can be defined as a system-wide process of data collection, diagnosis, action planning, intervention, and evaluation aimed at:


o   Enhancing congruence between organizational structure, process, strategy, people and culture


o   Developing new and creative organizational solutions


o   Developing the organization’s self-renewing capacity (Beer 1985 cited in Gilley and Eggland 1998)


o   Organization development is an educated process by which human resources are identified, allocated, and expanded in ways that make them more readily available to all members of the organization.


 


Organization Needs and Objectives


            Although the specific objectives of an effort according to organizational problems, common objectives typically emerge. These objectives reflect problems that are common to most organizations and prevent the creative release of human potential within organizations. Indeed most organizations have one or more of the following needs:


o   To build trust among members throughout the organization


o   To create throughout the organization an open, problem-solving climate in which problems are confronted and differences are clarified, both within groups and between groups.


o   To assign decision-making and problem-solving responsibilities


o   To increase the sense of sharing in organizational goals and objectives


o   To move toward more collaboration between interdependent persons and groups within the organization


o   To increase each individual’s awareness of group “process” and its consequences for performance


 


Basic Assumptions


            OD efforts have a better chance of being achieved through planned interventions based on the research findings and hypotheses of the behavioral sciences. Behavioral scientists have successfully helped organizations, first, to examine their procedures, norms, and values; second, to generate alternatives in these areas; and, finally, to make an evaluation. Using knowledge and techniques from the behavioural sciences, organization development specialists attempt to integrate organizational goals with individual needs for growth. Some of the basic assumptions underlying organization development are the following:


1. The attitudes most members of organizations hold toward work and their resultant work habits tend to reflect their work environment and how they are treated by the organization should be directed at changing the way the person is treated rather than at attempting to change the person.


2. Work that is organized to meet individual worker needs, as well as to achieve organizational requirements tend to produce the highest productivity and quality.


3. Most members of the organizations are not motivated to achieve organization goals through tight controls and threats of punishment. Rather, most individuals seek challenging work and desire responsibility for accomplishing organizational objectives to which they are committed.


4. The basic building blocks of any organization are its people, and the basic units of change are groups, not individuals.


5. The culture of most organizations tends to suppress the open expression of feelings, which people have about each other and about their organization. Suppression of feelings adversely affects problem solving, personal growth, and satisfaction in one’s work. The expression of feelings is an important part of becoming committed to a decision or a task.


6. Employees who learn to work in a constructively open way by providing feed back to each other become better able to profit from their own experiences and also utilize more fully their own resources in the task. Furthermore, the growth of individual members is facilitated by relationships which are open, supportive, and trusting.


7. People are committed to and care about what they help create. When change in introduced, it will be most effectively implemented if the groups and individuals involved have a sense of ownership in the process. Commitment is most likely to be attained when there is an active participation in the planning and conduct of the change.


8. The basic value underlying all OD theory and practice is that of “choice.” Through the collection and feedback of relevant data – made available by trust, openness, and risk – more choices becomes available to the work force and the organization (Henderson 1996).


 


Characteristics of Organizational Development


o   OD involves a total organizational system.


o   OD views organizations from a systems approach.


o   OD is supported by top management.


o   OD employs third-party change agents.


o   OD is a planned effort.


o   OD uses behavioral science knowledge.


o   OD is intended to increase organizational competence and health.


o   OD is a relatively long-term process.


o   OD is an ongoing process.


o   OD relies on experiential as opposed to didactic learning.


o   OD uses action research intervention model.


o   OD emphasizes the importance of goal setting and action planning.


OD mainly focuses on changing the attitudes, behaviors, and performance of organizational groups or teams rather than individuals (Marqulies and Raia 1978 cited in Gilley and Eggland 1998).


 


The OD Process


1. Problem Identification


The OD process begins when organization decision makers discover that there is a need or problem within the organization that is affecting productivity, morale, attitudes, or the organization’s competitiveness. For successful change, start with a rigorous measurement of the current situation and how the organization is presently functioning. This information provides the material for a correct diagnosis, the basis for a proper design for change.


2. The Relationship Phase


The decision to start an OD project requires that change agents carefully consider four criteria:


The match between client and what OD has to offer


The match between project demands and client influence, resources, and organizational readiness


The match between OD values and the client’s management philosophy


The match between the personalities of the change agent (consultant) and the client (Nielsen 1984 cited in Gilley and Eggland 1998).


3. The Diagnostic Phase


In diagnosing problems and setting goals, primary emphasis has been on the processes of change. In the diagnostic phase, it is important to develop a sound methodology. To do so requires that


o   A theoretical orientation be selected that is an appropriate model of organizational behavior, change, and design


o   A comprehensive assessment be made of all functional systems


o   All functional areas and hierarchical levels be represented


o   Change potential be predicted, by identifying all aspects of the system that can be altered by an appropriate intervention


o   Change orientation be identified, one that focuses on the well-being of the client system, not the consultant.


o   One be able to distinguish among the different actions to betaken by the client system and their implications (Bowers and Franklin 1977 cited in Gilley and Eggland 1998)


The diagnostic process involves data acquisition, data organization, and evaluation or interpretation of the organized information.


4. The Solution Phase


Change agents must be able to identify the sources of problems and match appropriate solutions to the problems. This requires a comprehensive analysis of the current state of the organization. This analysis precedes and will determine the appropriate treatment or intervention. Change agents must be familiar with the numerous intervention strategies available and categorize them in a meaningful fashion (Gilley and Eggland 1998).


5. The Intervention Phase


The action taken by the change agent is generally referred as intervention. It is defined as any strategy, approach, program, learning activity, or organized improvement designed to bring about a meaningful improvement in the organization and/or its human resources. This could include changes in beliefs, feelings, relationships, processes, and structure so that improved efficiency can be facilitated.


6. The Feedback (Evaluation) Phase


OD results and performance is assessed through three categories of measure. These measures may be


o   Product-oriented – relating to OD’s direct contribution to profit


o   Product/Process-oriented – relating to OD’s contribution to production and profit


o   Process-oriented – relating to measuring performance in non-productive, non-quantifiable terms and usually dealing with the quality of organizational processes.         


 


 


Motivation in Organization


            Employee motivation is now a major issue in organization. The shortage in the labor force, the intensifying war for talents and the view of human resources as a source of competitive advantage has led organizations to value human resources. Now more than ever, organizations are focusing on attracting, retaining and motivating its human resources. Motivation is connected to organizational performance. Motivation is also seen as a factor that makes employee stay in an organization.


 


Theories of Motivation


Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory


          Maslow’s Need Theory is a motivation theory that argues that motivation can be achieved if the needs are met. People according to Maslow seek to satisfy five basic needs. These are psychological needs, safety needs, social needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs. Physiological needs are those things that human needs in order to maintain and sustain life. These include food, water, and shelter. Safety needs are concerned with protection form danger, risk, uncertainty, or threats to the person. Social needs are those needs such as love, affection, meaningful relationships with other people and acceptance in a group. The esteem needs encompass the desire for status, prestige, recognition, attention and appreciation. The self-actualization needs are concerned about personal growth, realization of potential and intellectual strength.


 


Application


          In the organizational setting, the application of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs can be observed in compensation. Direct and indirect components of compensation satisfy the lower level needs (physiological and safety needs) while the psychological component of compensation address social, esteem, and self-actualization. These higher-level needs are satisfied using different such as awards and recognitions, continuous learning, job redesign, career development, life-work balance and other programs.


 


McClelland’s Achievement Theory


          According to Achievement theory, people have three basic motivational needs. These are affiliation, power and achievement. A person has a strong desire for individual and group approval and to be accepted socially and to form friendship, this is called affiliation motive. A person also has a desire to be in control – to change events and be able to have influence on others, this is called power motive. The achievement motive is an individual’s need to achieve and to succeed. The achievement motive can be satisfied through challenging tasks or work, establishing goals and succeeding.


 


Application


          In the organizational setting, achievement theory plays an important role in motivating employees and achieving high performance. It is important to consider the three motives of the employees. Employees with a high need for affiliation are suited for jobs that involves teamwork and jobs that with interpersonal contact. These kind of employees also need support and approval from their co-workers, superiors and customers. In order to satisfy the power motive of the employees, an organization can redesign jobs and encourage employee participation in organizational decision-making. Employee empowerment through training and development is important for employees with high power needs. For persons with high need for achievement, must be constantly challenged. Learning, education, and training can stimulate a greater need to achieve.


 


Skinner’s Reinforcement Theory


          The basic concept of Skinner’s reinforcement theory is learning. Learning is considered as relatively permanent change in behavior potentiality that results from reinforced practice or experience. According the Skinner’s theory, behaviors can be strengthened and intensified through reinforcement. The reinforcement theory identifies four different types of contingencies in learning. Two serve to strengthen desired behavior (positive reinforcement and avoidance learning) while the other two serve to weaken undesired behavior (extinction and punishment). A positive reinforcer is a stimulus that strengthens that probability of operant response. Avoidance learning is involves steps that will lead an individual to the desired behavior in order to escape or avoid unwanted consequence. Extinction occurs when a previously utilized positive reinforcer is withheld. The behavior may continue, but the absence of reward will gradually led to the extinction of the behavior. Punishment is a method of influencing behavior.


 


 


 


Application


          An example of how the reinforcement theory is applied in the organizational setting is through employee training. Through employee training behaviors are shaped. There are also different types of reinforcers that are at work in an organization. These reinforcers include advancement, praise, recognition, and money. One example of how avoidance learning works in the organization is when an employee receives a criticism from his or her supervisor. In order to avoid the unwanted consequence of an undesired behavior, the employee will avoid the undesired behavior. Extinction is also applied in training. For example, extinction can be used to extinguish the undesired behaviors that a new employee brings to the organization.


 


 


References


 


Beer, M. (1983) What is organizational development? In L. S. Baird, C. E.


            Schneier, and D. Laird (Eds.), Training and Development Sourcebook. Amherst, MA: HRD Press.


 


Bowers, D. G., and Franklin, J. L. (1977). Survey-Guided Development I:


            Data-Based Organizational Change. San Diego, CA: University Associates.


 


Breckler, S. J. (1984). Empirical Validation of Affect, Behavior, and Cognition as Distinct Components of Attitude. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 1191 – 1205.


 


Gilley, J. and Eggland, S. (1998). Principles of Human Resource


            Development. Reading MA: Perseus Publishing.


 


Henderson, G. (1996). Human Relations Issues in Management. Westport


            CT: Quorum Books.


 


Margulies, N. and Raia, A. (1978). Conceptual Foundations of OD. New


            York: McGraw-Hill.


 


Neilsen, E. H. (1984). Becoming an OD Practitioner. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:


            Prentice-Hall.


 


Nicholson. N. (1998). How Handwired is Human Behavior? Harvard Business Review, 133-147. 


 


Phelps, M. (1988). Organizational Development. Unpublished Manuscript,


            Lincoln: University of Nebraska.


 


Sims, R. (2002). Managing Organizational Behavior. Westport CT: Quorum Books.


 



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