Introduction
After my research on the subject of organizational behavior, I managed to gather substantial information regarding the organization, organizational behavior and organizational theories and concepts. Through my research I found that an organization is defined as a system of two or more people, engaged in a cooperative action, trying to reach an agreed-upon purpose. Organizations are systems of structured social interactions featuring the use of incentives, communication systems, and authority relations (Sims 2002). Organizational behavior can be defined as the actions and attitudes of people in organizations. The field of organizational behavior is the body of knowledge derived from the study of these actions and attitudes. Organizational behavior can help managers identify problems , determine how to correct them, and establish whether the changes would make a difference. Such knowledge can help people better understand situations they face in the workplace and change their behavior so that their performance and the organization’s effectiveness increase (Sims 2002).
One topic about organizational behavior that I came across and in which I am interested in is motivation. According to Sims (2002), motivation is the process of satisfying internal needs through actions and behaviors. It is concerned with a composite of mental and physical drives, combined with the environment that makes people behave the way they do (p.55). According to Adair (2004), motivation is about something within you impelling you to move forwards, to achieve a goal, to make progress in a task. The ‘something’ is the driving force may be a need, or desire, or an emotion but it leads you to act in a certain way. Signs of motivation in a person are an energy and determination to achieve (p. 58). This paper presents an in-depth analysis of motivation as applied to organizations. Employee motivation is an important topic for organizations and for Human Resource Managers. In this paper, the researcher will present an analysis and critique of three journal articles that talk about employee motivation.
Search Strategy
The search strategy that the researcher employed was secondary research. Secondary research makes use of published materials such as books, journals, magazines, and newspapers in order to collect data about the topic. The researcher also made use of the Internet in obtaining information about employee motivation. The data that were collected were primarily secondary data. Secondary data can provide a useful source from which to answer the research question(s).
Punch (1998) mentions several advantages of using existing data. Expenditure on obtaining data can be significantly reduced and data analysis can begin immediately, so saving time. Also, the quality of some data may be superior to anything the researcher could have created alone (Thomas, 2004, p. 191). On the other hand, the chosen research method also has several disadvantages. Data that have been gathered by others for their own purposes can be difficult to interpret when they are taken out of their original context. It is also much more difficult to appreciate the weak points in data that have been obtained by others. The data may be only partially relevant to the current research question (Thomas, 2004, p. 191).
Summaries and Analyses
First Article: Employee Motivation by Regina Creech (1995)
The article is an informative presentation of employee motivation concepts. It starts with a brief description of motivation. According to the article, motivation is something which gives impetus to our behavior by arousing, sustaining, and directing it toward the attainment of goals (Wortman and Loftus 1992 cited in Creech 1995). The article is meant to be a guide for managers and leaders in motivating employee. Abraham Maslow’s work on the subject on motivation was cited by the author. According to Creech (1995) Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs helps explain why the process of motivation is not a simple process that can e externally administered. Motivation according to Maslow in the result of needs within everyone that make people act the way they do. Under the hierarchy theory, people are first motivated by the desire to secure first-level needs of food and shelter for survival. After that, security and safety become major motivators, followed by assimilation into social groups where ego needs can be satisfied to the final step of self-actualization. Maslow’s hierarchy theory was applied by the author to present work environment. According to Creech (1995) the needs of the employees have changed over the time. Although the primary needs of employees remain, the workforce have become more educated and able to handle creative, mental work. Employees demand for these kind of works in order to satisfy their upper-level needs. Pay alone is not enough to keep employees satisfied.
Another important concept that the author presented was that of Frederick Herzberg who divided influences of motivation as ‘motivators’ and ‘dissatisfiers’. Applied to work settings, Dissatisfiers refer to matters that have been used by management in attempts to keep employees happy and, to some extent, avoid unionism. They relate mainly to an employee’s maintenance and hygience needs by providing a work situation that allows employees to perform in as much comfort as possible, Dissatisfiers include pay, physical plant conditions, supervisory behavior, supplemental benefits, company policy and administration, fairness of work rule enforcement, vacations and other matters that are basically peripheral to the actual job employees. Motivators, on the other hand are more closely related to the work an employee does and usually function independently of hygiene factors. The aspects of motivational factors are usually a result of the feedback generated between the employee and the job. Motivational factors are grouped into:
1. Growth – refers to the mental abilities of employee.
2. Achievement – comes from the sense of accomplishment felt when an employee meets either long-term or short-term goals.
3. Responsibility – denotes a feeling that a person has toward the job, through a commitment that stems from a possessory interest in some aspect of that job.
4. Recognition – should be earned directly through the job rather than be in the form of unexpected gratuities heaped upon the workers by a supervisor woth the best intentions of being friendly.
The article is very useful for those who are interested with employee motivation. The article presents motivation through the perspective of the manager. The article is able to briefly discuss two motivation theories – Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and Herberg’s Hygiene Theory. The author was able to apply these theories in work settings. Perhaps the most obvious shortcoming of the article is the lack of in-depth investigation of different motivation concepts. The author was able to present glimpses of motivation concepts but failed to present in-depth explanation.
Second Article: What Successful Companies Know That Law Firms Need to Know: The Importance of Employee Motivation and Job Satisfaction to Increased Productivity and Stronger Client Relationships by Theresa M. Neff (2002)
The article tackles motivation and employee satisfaction and their impact of employee performance as applied in law firms. The article opened with the nature of the job of lawyers and the effect of the demands of their profession to their relationships and performance. The author argues that lawyers face stress and must deal with the demands of the legal profession. According to the article, when lawyers are unhappy, whether because of work pressure, public opinion, or both, their unhappiness often permeates the workplace. The greater their dissatisfaction the more likely they are to become anxious, hostile and depressed. According to the article, it is the work environment, the particular mix of positive and negative work factors that accounts for most of the variation in satisfaction/dissatisfaction levels.
The author used made use of a survey in order to analyze the relationship between lawyers and their employees and determine what features of the workplace would most likely have a positive effect on employees’ motivation and loyalty. Perhaps the most useful part of the article (for my research) is the theoretical discussion of motivation. In this part, the author discussed three theories of motivation – Expectancy Theory and Herzberg’s Theory.
Expectancy Theory
The expectancy theory is one of the most accepted explanations of motivation. This theory states that motivation depends on how much an individual wants something relative to other things, and the perceived effort-reward probability that they will get it. The exchange is economic in nature and it is assumed that individuals will have expectations regarding the rewards they receive versus the resources and time they must expend in getting them. The expectancy theory explains why some workers only do the minimum to get by, while others push themselves to receive desired rewards.
Herzberg’s Theory
One pioneer in motivation theory, Frederick Herzberg posited that the only way to motivate employees long-term is to give them challenging work where they can assume responsibility. According to Herzberg there are two dimensions to jib satisfaction: motivation and hygience. Hygiene refers to variables that relate to an employee’s environment such as company policies, supervision, salary and working conditions. Herzberg perceived the hygiene factors not as motivators, but as areas of potential dissatisfaction. Herzberg clamed that if employers satisfactorily address hygiene issues, there is greater employee satisfaction.
The author of the article found out through the survey that she conducted that salary is not enough to motivate employees. According to the results of her survey, intrinsic factors such as achievement and recognition were just as important to employees in influencing their overall motivation and job satisfaction as salary, or other extrinsic factors. The article offers an in-depth analysis of employee motivation in work settings.
Third Article: Leadership and Motivation: The Effective Application of Expectancy Theory by Robert G. Issaac, Wilfred J. Zerbe, and Douglas C. Pitt (2001)
The authors of the article discussed the application of Expectancy Theory in organizational settings. The article offers information on how expectancy theory can be applied by individuals who want to assume leadership roles. The article is intended to provide a link between expectancy theory and leadership concepts to demonstrate that leader interactions with followers permit the establishment of highly motivational working environments.
Successful leaders share four important insights and beliefs about the nature of their relationships with followers. First, they view the chain of command in a rather unique way, recognizing that it works best in achieving results when the follower is gently pulled through influence towards desired goals (Miller, 1996), rather than pushed and shoved to accomplish corporate purposes (Maccoby, 1996). By establishing a relationship of mutual interest (Kouzes and Posner, 1993), the leader draws the follower along a pathway that satisfies the goals of both parties. Like the piece of string, the chain of command when pushed generally leads to unsatisfactory results and frustration. Second, the successful leader views the chain of command, or perhaps more appropriately stated, the “chain of influence, as a delicate one, only as strong as its weakest link. To strengthen the chain, leaders must get to know their followers, what motivates them, and their various stages of personal development (Miller, 1999). The leader seeks to understand the needs, goals, and personal motives of the follower. The challenge for the leader lies in finding ways to satisfy both the interests of the follower and the company. Third successful leaders understand that they are unable to directly motivate followers. According to Isaac et al (2001) the only reasonable undertaking for any leader is to establish conditions that offer the highest probability of encouraging the follower to be self-motivated. Fourth, leaders display honesty and consistency of behavior displayed to followers. Leaders must exercise extreme care when making promises that they may find difficult to keep later. They should fear a loss of credibility (Weaver, 1996), as well as a reduction in follower motivation, when unable to fulfill agreements made in the past. Apart from considerations relating to honesty, leaders also need to maintain high levels of consistency in behaviors displayed towards individual followers regarding matters such as fairness, expectations and personal code of conduct. Through consistency, leaders create a positive climate for their followers, enabling the latter to concentrate upon their jobs. Inconsistency breeds discontent and causes followers to brood upon what they perceive as arbitrary and capricious leader behaviors. Further, to maintain high levels of employee commitment, leaders must minimize distinctions of status that might cause some followers to conclude they are not valued (Pfeffer and Veiga, 1999).
The article is very informative especially for those who are in the leadership position. The article presents a clear application of the expectancy theory and offers information to leaders on how to use the theory to motivate their employees.
Discussion
The three papers discussed above all discuss employee motivation. From the three papers, I learned the basic concepts of motivation. Through my research I am also compelled to research on the different motivation theories. The papers mentioned these motivation theories, and to some extent offer a brief background to the theories, but in-depth analysis is lacking.
Motivation Theories
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Organizations that strive to meet the needs of their employees attract the best people and motivate them to do excellent work. Some insight into how this may come about is provided by psychologist Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory. Maslow’s basic idea was simple: People will not be healthy and well adjusted unless they have their needs met. Specifically, Maslow (1954) proposed that all people seek to satisfy five basic kinds of needs: psychological needs, safety needs, belongingness needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs. Maslow suggested that these needs constitute a hierarchy of needs, with the most basic or compelling—physiological and safety needs—at the bottom. Maslow argued that these lowest-level needs must be met before a person will strive to satisfy needs higher up in the hierarchy, such as self-esteem needs. Once a need is satisfied, he proposed, it ceases to operate as a source of motivation. The lowest level of unmet needs in the hierarchy is the prime motivator of behavior; if and when this level is satisfied, needs at the next highest level in the hierarchy motivate behavior.
Some key conclusions that can be drawn from Maslow’s hierarchy are:
- There are several aspects of the workplace other than money (to provide for physiological needs)
- Since people can be at any of the levels of the hierarchy, what substantially motivates one person may provide only minimal motivation to another—thus managers must be aware of the needs of each individual
- What motivates a person may change over time, thus the assessment of a person’s needs must be continuous.
Individual growth is the key vehicle for organizational success. Managers must attempt to identify individual employee needs and foster satisfaction. If they do so, employees will progress toward self-actualization, permitting the organization to be all that it can be (Sims 2002).
McClelland’s achievement Theory
David McClelland (1961) theorized that individuals have three basic motivational needs: affiliation, power, and achievement. The affiliation motive can be explained as a strong desire for individual and group approval, and it reflects the desire for social acceptance and friendship. The power motive can be satisfied by being in control. It is expressed as a strong desire to change events and to exercise influence over others. The achievement motive is based on the need to achieve and win. It is characterized by seeking a challenge, establishing goals, working hard, and succeeding.
For managers, all three motives—affiliation, power, and achievement—are important when it comes to motivating employees. What is more, McClelland found that learning, education, and training can stimulate a greater need to achieve. Managers can use their understanding of the three needs to match employees to tasks that help them fulfill these needs, resulting in high performance. For example, it is wasteful to place a person with a high need for achievement in a job with routine demands. This person would not feel challenged, would probably become bored, lose interest, and perhaps leave the job. People with a high need for affiliation are likely to perform better in jobs with a lot of interpersonal contact, as well as personal support and approval tied to their performance (Sims 2002).
Herberg’s Hygiene Theory of Motivation
Herberg’s theory focuses on two factors: (1) outcome that can lead to high levels of motivation and job satisfaction and (2) outcomes that can prevent people from being dissatisfied. According to Herzberg’s theory, people have two sets of needs or requirements: motivator needs and hygiene needs. Motivator needs are related to the nature of the work itself and how challenging it is. Outcomes such as interesting work, autonomy, responsibility, being able to grow and develop on the job, and a sense of accomplishment and achievement help to satisfy motivator needs. In order to have a highly motivated and satisfied workforce, Herzberg suggested, managers should take steps to ensure that employees’ motivator needs are being met. Hygiene needs are related to the physical and psychological context in which the work is performed. Hygiene needs are satisfied by outcomes such as pleasant and comfortable working conditions, pay, job security, good relationships with coworkers, and effective supervision. According to Herzberg, when hygiene needs are not met, workers will be dissatisfied, and when hygiene needs are met, workers will be satisfied. Satisfying hygiene needs, however, will not result in high levels of motivation or even high levels of job satisfaction. For motivation and job satisfaction to be high, motivator needs must be met.
- Some of the various motivators (work itself) identified by Herzberg include Recognition
- Advancement
- Work content
- Possibility of growth
- Achievement
- Responsibility
Various hygiene factors (environment) include
- Status
- Working conditions
- Company policy and administration
- Money
- Supervision
- Interpersonal relations
- Security
Managers should apply the conclusions of Herzberg’s research because they are relevant to understanding motivation. According to his findings, an organization may provide adequate salary, safe working conditions, and job security—yet still have low motivation. Physical conditions are not as important as psychological conditions when it comes to motivating people. In conclusion, Herzberg’s theory stresses the importance of helping individuals satisfy all their needs, not just lower-level needs (Sims 2002).
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
Victor Vroom’s Expectancy Theory examines motivation through the perception of what a person believes will happen. According to the expectancy theory, human motivation is affected by anticipated rewards and costs. An employee will be motivated to work toward a particular goal if it is perceived that a personal need will be satisfied. The employee’s desire for a goal (valence) multiplied by what the organization expects (expectancy) will equal satisfaction and motivation.
Expectancy Theory helps managers to identify key leverage points for influencing motivation. The following implications are crucial:
- Provide a work environment that facilitates good performance, and set realistically attainable goals.
- Provide training, support, and encouragement so that people are confident they can perform at the levels expected of them.
- Understand what people want to get out of work. Think about what their jobs provide them and what is not but could be provided.
- Make sure that good performance is followed by personal recognition and praise, favorable performance reviews, pay increases, and other positive results.
- Make sure that working hard and doing things well will have as few negative results as possible.
- Ensure that poor performance has fewer positive and more negative outcomes than good performance (Sims 2002).
References
Adair J E 2004, The Concise Adair on Teambuilding and Motivation, (N Tomas ed.), Thorogood, London.
Creech, R 1995, ‘Employee Motivation’, Management Quarterly, vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 33+.
Isaac, R G, Zerbe, W J and Pitt, D C 2001, ‘Leadership and Motivation: The Effective Application of Expectancy Theory’, Journal of Managerial Issues, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 212+.
Kouzes, J M and Posner, B Z 1993, Credibility: How Leaders Gain and Lose It, Why People Demand It, Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco, CA.
Maccoby, M 1996, ‘Resolving the Leadership Paradox: The Doctor’s Dialogue’, Research-Technology Management, vol. 39, no. 3, pp. 57-59.
Miller, J B 1996, ‘Winning Strategies: The Long and Short of It’, Incentive, vol. 170, no. 9, pp. 49-52.
Miller, C 1999, ‘The Renaissance Manager: Embracing the Three Dimensions of Dynamic Leadership’, Supervision, vol. 60, no. 2, pp. 6-8.
Neff, T M 2002. ‘What Successful Companies Know That Law Firms Need to Know: The Importance of Employee Motivation and Job Satisfaction to Increased Productivity and Stronger Client Relationships’, Journal of Law and Health, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 385+.
Pfeffer, J and Veiga, J F 1999, ‘Putting People First for Organizational Success’, The Academy of Management Executive, vol. 13, no, 2, pp. 37-48.
Sims, R 2002, Managing Organizational Behavior, Quorum Books, Westport CT.
Weaver, R L 1996, ‘Motivating the Motivators: Eight Characteristics for Empowering Those Who Empower Others, Executive Speeches, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 35-37.
Worthman, C B and Loftus, E F 1992, Psychology, McGraw-Hill, New York.
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