MODULE: RESEARCH METHODS 1
MODULE COORDINATOR:
TITLE: ISSUES INVOLVED WHEN USING QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE METHODOLIGIES IN RESEARCH
MATRICULATION NUMBER:
INTRODUCTION
This assignment deals with the issues involved when using quantitative and Qualitative methodologies in research. It is mainly divided into two major sections. The first part will consider the general discussion about Quantitative and Qualitative approaches. It will then go on to discuss the approaches used in a specific condition.
According to Merriam-Webster dictionary, research is a ‘‘studious and critical inquiry
And examination aimed at the discovery and interpretation of new knowledge’’ ( cited in Bork, 1993, p. 11). Research design in its specific level means the way the researcher perceives and tries to find a solution and gives an alternative interpretation of result (Punch 2005).
Research approaches are generally categorized as Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed research.
CONTRIBUTIONS AND DRAWBACKS
Quantitative Research Design
Quantitative or Reductionist research approach deals with quantities and relationship between attributes, and involves the collection and analysis of highly structured data in the positivist tradition. This research is appropriate in situations where there is pre-existing knowledge about a condition (Creswell, 2003). This approach tries to divide a particular theory into many constituent parts. It then tests each part separately. After analyzing the individual elements it can be used like a building block to construct theories and helps to know more about the phenomenon (Bork 1993)
Following chart shows the divisions of Quantitative Research Design
1. Experimental Method
The basis of this method is the comparison between the groups. The aim of the research will be to show that the differences seen in the outcome variable between the groups are due to the independent variable (Punch 2005). Experimental method includes Pre-test/post-test design, Post test only design and Factorial design (Polgar and Thomas 1995)
In certain occasions it is ethically inappropriate to undergo research using experimental design (Polgar and Thomas 1995).
2. Quasi experimental Method
It differs from experimental method in allocation of groups. In quasi experimental method there is no random allocation into groups. It is again divided into Time-series design and Multiple-group time-series design. Major drawbacks of both these designs are they have less internal validity (Polgar and Thomas 1995).
3. Surveys
Commonly used survey approach is retrospective design which focuses mainly on past events. Another approach is prospective design in which the group needed for the study is identified initially (Hicks 2004).
Even though it is easy to select participants according to clearly defined criteria, it is a real time consuming process to access an adequate number of suitable participants (Hicks 2004).
4. Correlational Studies
The aim of this study in health sciences is to find out the interrelationships among clinically significant variables. Correlation numerically represents the strength of relationship that might be present between two or more variables (Polgar and Thomas 1995).
5. Single-subject design
This design is also known as steady-state methodology since they compare the effects of manipulation done to some baseline in the same individual (Field and Hole 2003).This design is divided into AB design, ABAB design and Multiple baseline design (Polgar and Thomas 1995)
These designs are helpful to prevent the perception of a wrong phenomenon as a result of the averaging together of the performance by individuals (Field and Hole 2003).
Qualitative Research Design
Qualitative approach represents a broad view; helps understand human affairs and subjective qualities of human behavior (Holliday 2002). Qualitative approaches concentrates mostly on specific individuals, rather than on groups, or types of individuals. Here the individual as a whole in relation to their social setting is described. Hence qualitative research can be called as holistic (Hicks 2004). Webb (1988) also states that Qualitative research represents an interpretive science (cited in Barker 1999).
Qualitative research design provides insight into the social, emotional and experiential aspects of health and health care and thus has an important place in understanding health and health care. Observation of interaction between client and the health professional gives an insight into the meaning given by health professionals to their work (Holloway 2005). According to Cambell (1974) “All research ultimately has a qualitative grounding”(cited in Miles and Huberman 1994, p. 40). The strength of qualitative research is the understanding that comes from observing the inter-relationships (Bork, 1993). Quantitative and qualitative designs should be perceived as complementary rather than in terms of superior or inferior (Hicks 2004).
Principle approaches to qualitative Research are
DISCUSSION OF QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE METHODS USED IN SPECIFIC CONDITION
(Exercise intervention to prevent falls in Elderly people)
Various studies have been conducted in this field. In a study by Carter et al (2002), a randomised control trial was undertaken to show that a community-based exercise program for 20 weeks reduced the risk factors for falls in the elderly. Dynamic balance, knee extension strength and static balance of the intervention group were found far better than that of control group. These are the important determinants to risk of falls in the elderly. A drawback to this study is Frail individuals (having osteoporosis) may not be able to attend community-based programs even though they might get more benefit than that of healthy individual. Motivation levels of the subjects could also influence outcome measures. Inclusion of a larger sample to evaluate the effect of this type of intervention on older individuals with osteoporosis could be an option for further research since these people are at greater risk of falls than the participants who attended in this study.
A randomised control trial conducted by Campbell et al (1997) showed that a home-based exercise programme for the elderly improved physical function and was effective in reducing falls and injuries in women above 80 years. A risk faced by researchers in this study is that the strength-retraining programme used here required increased activities such as walking which in turn increased the risk of falling in the already high-risk individuals. Another flaw in the research is that it was not possible to note the compliance and the quality of the exercises performed by the subjects since the exercises were home based
In yet another study conducted by Campbell and colleagues (2005), a randomised control trial of the prevention of falls in a particular risk group was done which included people aged 75 years and above with severe visual impairments. In this study two interventions were compared, Home safety programme and Exercise programme (Otago exercise programme). The home safety programme succeeded in the reduction of falls and also proved to be a cost effective regime than that of exercise programme. A major flaw in this study was that the participants were selected through Royal New Zealand Foundation of Blind and through Low vision Clinics. It would have been better if they screened the population through primary care for their ability to participate in exercise programme. This may help to deliver the intervention to those populations who are really in need.
An article by Salkeld et al (2000) used a mixed method, where a randomised control trial to examine the effectiveness of the external hip protectors for older women at risk of hip fractures was done. The qualitative aspect involved open ended quality of life interview, which helped to define the dimensions of quality of life affected by a hip fracture. The data helped to generate four ‘name labeled’ health states (full health, fear of falling, a good hip fracture and a bad hip fracture). It was seen that the most important threat seemed to be the loss of independence, dignity and possessions that resulted from moving into nursing homes. Most participants did not want to live on borrowed time at the expense of younger people. They preferred death to a state that meant losing their homes, independence and normal quality of life. A flaw in this study is that it is difficult to get the accurate proportion of women experiencing the bad hip fracture health state. Even though the study has got its own flaw, researcher says that its findings should be applicable to the frail old women who have sustained injury after a fall or those who had only a fall. The values for each health states in this study are considered reliable based on the intra class correlation coefficient.
Majority of Qualitative methodologist did not consider Measurement Validity and Reliability thoroughly and consistently (Denzin 1978, cited in Goodwin 1984). According to Bogdan and Biklen (1982) validity is given consideration rather than reliability in qualitative research.
Another effective example of an integrated qualitative and quantitative method was a study done by Borkan and his colleagues (1991) to determine the predictors of recovery after hip fracture in elderly patients as a result of fall. Standard questionnaires were used to collect information regarding age and type of break. In-depth interviews were collected from the patients to collect information about personal narratives focusing on the internal explanation of the fractures, sense of disability and view of the future after hip fracture following a fall. It was seen that those who perceived their fracture as more external or mechanical as opposed to an internal problem like related to a chronic disease were more likely to have a good recovery. Persons with a positive outlook, who perceived their disability in the context of independence and connection with the outside world showed better ambulation at 3 and 6 months than persons with a confined view of the fracture and the resulting disability.
CONCLUSION
The qualitative and quantitative research methods have different approaches to research techniques but none of them are superior to other, rather complimentary techniques. The choice of method and how it can be used should be matched according to the study done.
From the research studies mentioned above it is clear that randomised control trials were able to convince the reader that the various preventive interventions like home based exercises and safety programs were able to prevent falls in the elderly. The qualitative aspect of the paper was able to address the issues from the patient’s viewpoint regarding the quality of life, fear and anxiety within the context of his/her family setting and social circumstances.
REFERENCES
BARKER, P. 1999. Qualitative Research in Nursing and Health Care. London: NT Books.
BOGDAN, R. C. and BIKLEN, S. K. 1982. Qualitative Research for Education: An introduction to theory and methods. Boston: Allyn and Bacon
BORK, C.E. 1993. Research in Physical Therapy. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company.
BORKAN, J.M., QUIRK, M. and SULLIVAN, M.1991. Finding meaning after fall: Injury narratives from elderly hip fracture patients. Social Science and Medicine, 33 (8), pp. 947-957.
CAMPBELL, A.J., ROBERTSON, M.C., GARDNER, M.M., NORTON, R.N., TILYARD, M.W. and BUCHNER, D.M. 1997. Randomised control trial of a general practice programme of home based exercise to prevent falls in elderly women. British Medical Journal, 331 October, pp. 1065-1069.
CAMPBELL, A.J., ROBERTSON, M.C, GROW, S.J.L., KERSE, N.M., SANDERSON, G.F., JACOBS, R.J., SHARP, D.M. and HALE, L.A. 2005. Randomised control trial of prevention of falls in people aged ≥75 with severe visual impairment: the VIP trial. British Medical Journal, 331 October, pp. 817-820.
CARTER, N.D., KHAN, K.M., McKAY, H.A., PETIT, M.A., WATERMAN, C., HEINONEN, A., JANSSEN, P.A., DONALDSON, M.G., MALLINSON, A., RIDDELL, L., KRUSE, K., PRIOR, J.C. and FLICKER, L. 2002. Community-based exercise program reduces risk factors for falls in 65-to 75- year-old women with osteoporosis: randomised controlled trial. Canadian Medical Association Journal [Online] 167(9) October, pp. 997-1003. Available from:
< http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/167/9/997 > [Accessed 28 December 2006].
CRESWELL J.W. 2003. Research design qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches. 2nd edition. London: Sage publications
FIELD, A and HOLE, G. 2003. How to Design and Report Experiments. London: Sage Publications.
FRENCH, S., REYNOLDS, F. and SWAIN, J. 2001. Practical Research A Guide for Therapists. 2nd ed. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann
GOODWIN, W. L. 1984. Are validity and reliability ‘Relevant’ in Qualitative evaluation research? Evaluation and the Health Professions, 7(4) December, pp. 413-426.
HICKS, C. 2004. Research Methods for Clinical Therapists. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Churchill Livingstone.
HOLLIDAY, A. 2002. Doing and Writing Qualitative Research. London: SAGE Publications.
HOLLOWAY, I. 2005. Qualitative Research in Health Care. Maidenhead: Open University Press
MILES, M. B. and HUBERMAN, A. M. 1994. Qualitative Data Analysis. USA: Sage Publications
POLGAR, S. and THOMAS, S.A. 1995. Introduction to Research in the Health Sciences. 3rd ed. Melbourne: Churchill Livingstone
PUNCH, K. F. 2005. Introduction to Social Research Quantitative and qualitative approaches. London: Sage Publications Ltd.
SCHMOLL, B.J. 1993. Qualitative research. In: Bork, C.E. Research in Physical Therapy. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company
WORD COUNT – 1655.
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