Advertising: its Success and Likeability


 


This paper discusses the fundamentals of advertising particularly on the premise that advertising has to be liked to be successful advertising. Furthermore, the information presented in the discussions are based on a broad collection of old and new advertising literatures. To illustrate the points of this paper, the case of British Airlines was used as example.


 


Advertising and its Underlying Theories


Advertising is bringing the company’s products and services to the mindset of the target market (Carter 1999; Allen et al. 2001; Goddard 2002) using different mediums like TV, radio, internet, and print media. It refers to the paid promotion of goods and services through a sponsoring organization or company using statements and slogans (Elinder 1961) that are appealing to the target people. This kind of advertisement is also considered as a myth about myth (Wernick 1994). According to Leiss (1972), the process has been recognized as a “major vehicle of social communication in modern Western society (p.122).” There are commonly three main objectives of advertisements: (1) conveying relevant information regarding a particular product or service; (2) persuading consumers to purchase the advertised product; and, (3) keep the company under the watchful eyes of the public (Hancock et al. 2002). In a general sense, advertising is being utilized to be able to impart to the consumers the availability of a particular product. In a way, it is also able to provide critical information regarding the product. When an advertising campaign is achieved effectively, this can lead to an increased demand for the product.


In using global advertising, companies hope to create consistent brand images worldwide, spend less marketing resources in producing unified appeals, and use only one or a few international agencies to handle the company’s entire advertising (Harris 1994; Mueller 1991 Englis 1994). Multinational companies as well as local companies now use both global and local advertising (Barber 1996; Featherstone 1990; Friedman 1999; Sklair 1995; Duncan and Ramaprasad 1995).


Advertising is viewed as a tool that facilitates a consumer’s decision-making by making available information that will provide a buyer a line of choices from which he will pick those products and commodities that will satisfy his need state (Tuerck 1978). Furthermore, advertising also helps promote market competition which, in turn, widens the range of product options and brands that are brought to the attention of the consumers. This, according to Tuerck minimizes, if not eradicates, the possibility of one marketer to gain sole control and domination over one market segment.


The Relevance-Accessibility Model of Advertising Effectiveness (RAM) presumes that the primary purpose of advertising is to present information that will give the brand a relative advantage over competing brands at the time of brand choice (Mitchell 1993).  RAM has two assumptions: firstly, elements of the advertising message must be accessible at the time of brand choice to be effective; and secondly, advertising information must be relevant to be effective.


Advertising impressions may be visual, verbal, or emotional.  The RAM views brand attitudes, judgments, or preferences formed at the time of advertising exposure as potential mediators of brand choice (Mitchell 1993).  There is what is called the “pure effect” – a level that refers to “free-floating” feelings and emotional responses that are consciously unlinked to any specific brand attributes, benefits, and past promotional (e.g., advertising) or usage experiences, at least at the time of brand choice. Such affect provides no real evidence of either absolute or relative product quality, but consumers may interpret it as such. When individuals make decisions based on pure affect, they are reacting solely to a feeling, not on the information that led to that feeling (Mitchell 1993).  Positive feelings intrinsically motivate approach behavior; negative feelings motivate avoidance behavior (Skinner 1972; Zajonc 1980).


Like business, consumers are concerned with their own image. They want to be seen in a favorable light. The consumer’s interest lies in his self-image — the image he has and would like to have of himself (Lazer 1971).  In reacting to marketing stimuli and in making purchase decisions, consumers will readily accept those activities that enhance or relate positively to consumer self-image. Similarly, if an advertising or selling campaign is created that enables the consumer to identify favorably with the situation presented, then the campaign is more likely to be successful. The values that form or furnish the basis of self-image and identification are fundamental to the cultivation of effective marketing programs, but they are hidden and hard to detect, even with psychological instruments (Lazer 1971).


Perhaps, the notion of advertising and promotional campaigns will always be regarded as one of the most effective way and important instrument for introducing or presenting new discoveries for the targeted individuals.  Generally, advertising or promotional campaigns are regarded as an open sponsorship of offering products, services and any ideas through the use of any mediums of communication.  With its beginning, advertising is known to be a simple announcement.  For example, the businessman for ancient Egypt assign individual to announce the arrival of ship and cargos. When printing press was invented, a new form of advertising had evolved. 


It is said that the leading group of advertisers are in food businesses, followed by the entrepreneurs for cosmetics and drugs, tobacco, soaps, automobiles, oil products and appliances. As mentioned earlier, advertisement is implemented through the use of any medium of communication.   In this regard, there are different kinds of media which are use for advertising and promotional campaign purposes. The major advertising media include magazines, newspapers, radio and television, billboards, business publications and circulars which are being sent through mails.  However, with the evolution of the modern technology specifically the existence of the World Wide Web had made the internet to be considered as one of the most essential advertising media. 


Although, advertisement has many benefits especially for the one who use it, there are also some criticisms that can be attached to advertising. One of which is the notion that advertising creates wrong values and pushes people to consume things which they do not really want or need.  In addition, some subjects of advertisement are known to be harmful but because it is advertised it implies a wrong perception for the buyers.  Conversely, the defenders of advertising had been able to contradict the idea of the advertising critique. For pro advertising, the concept of advertising means to promote products, services, and ideas and not to generate values.


Primarily, the main objective of this paper is to critically compare different kind of advertisement or promotion used by different institutions.  In addition, this paper will also cite the differences and similarities of these advertisements.  The advertisements styles that will be compared in this study are embedded on the following articles: Cigarette Advertising and Smoking, Nutritional Supplement Advertising, Re-Imagining Technology: The Case of Cars, What is like on Planet Nescafe, From Instant Asia to Multifaceted Jewel: Urban Imaging Strategies and Tourism Development in Singapore, Dream Utopias, Nightmare Realities: Imaging Race and Culture within the World of Benetton Advertising


 


Comparison of the Advertising and Promotional Campaign Style Used


With the concept above, it is conventional to say that the main purpose of advertisement or promotional campaigns is to make the people become aware of the products, services, ideas and advancement made by different experts.  Many organizations may it be profit or non-profit, public or private are trying to use or create their own style of advertisement for every purpose they wish to achieve.  According to Leiss (1972, 122), “advertising has been recognized as a major vehicle of social communication in modern Western society.” 


In business, advertising or promotional campaigns is used in order to make the products or services more appealing to their target consumers or buyers.  In health institutions, the main purpose of using the concept of advertisement is to let the people be knowledgeable about the health-related discoveries, such as the effects of drug abuse, awareness for AIDS and other important factors which is helpful in maintaining a healthy life-style. On the other hand, advertisement and promotional campaigns are also used in political purpose.  For example, if the government would want to impose new bills or regulations, they use promotional campaign to present the objective and advantages of such regulation to the people. 


However, even if advertising and promotional campaigns had a general purpose which is announcement or awareness, it does not mean that each institution uses the same strategy or style of advertising.  The greatest challenge for each and every institution is to develop new and unique style of advertisement that will be appealing to the target individual. Different organizations have been able to create and implement their own style of advertisement.  It can be said, that the technique used in advertising commonly depends on the nature and kind of the products, services, or ideas to be promoted.


For example, cigarette advertising is referred as the revolutionary style of the tobacco industries in the world to promote their products.  Cigarette advertising’s has many distinctive characteristic among other advertising technique.  One of which cigarette advertisement uses extremely researched images and slogans in its presentation (Chapman, 1986).  In addition, cigarette advertising is overtly a brand advertisement.  This means, that the initial purpose of cigarette advertising is to promote the brand of a certain cigarette.  It is known in the world that cigarette advertisement had become controversial because of the harmful effects of cigarette to the health of the people. Thus in order to promote cigarettes in the market, different cigarette industries provides statements in characterizing the concept of cigarette advertising.  The first argument states that cigarette or tobacco advertising does not influence cumulative demand for tobacco but only operates to attempt to redistribute market share with the competing brands.  In addition, cigarette advertising claims that the goal of this advertisement is to promote cigarette for adult smokers and that it does not made or directed to children.  Another characteristic that can be attached to cigarette smoking is the notion that it provides detailed information about the possible effect of cigarette to the people as well as the presentation of the conversion of each cigarette to become a safer filtered and low tar brand.


On the other hand, another kind of advertisement is the one that has been used by institution which promotes nutritional supplement.  Nutritional supplement advertising is normally known for its strategic use of the concept of science and nature in promoting the products (Riedlinger and Pittam, 1997).  In this manner, science is use in this advertisement in order to justify some elements of the product which can be seen in different ways. Science is used by putting the scientific name of a certain products likes for example Vitamin C which is ascorbic acid.  In addition, this advertisement also uses images like oranges and other vegetables and fruits to show where Vitamin C can be taken. Further, this nutritional supplement advertising also uses the concept of nature. The advertisers use the concept of nature in order to establish a perception that the product being promoted is healthy, beneficial and non-destructive (Williamson, 1978).  In this regard, the purpose of using the concept of nature is to show the naturalness of the product rather than the scientific nature that it has.


The next type of advertisement is the one which is commonly used in presenting or introducing technological advancement.  This kind of advertising campaign uses the modern technology specifically symbolized technology to promote a certain products. In this manner, the advertisers use symbolic imagery that can be seen in computer technology. These images are used to depict the root of a certain technology, how it emerges to be part of technological advancement and the revelation of modern technology.  In addition, advertisement of this kind also uses statements and slogans that will be appealing to the target people.  This kind of advertisement is also considered as a myth about myth (Wernick, 1994). For example, the advertisement made by IBM for the promotion of car has shown three symbolisms: modernity, progress and technology.


Another style of advertisement is the kind that relates globalization, nostalgia and the pleasures of consumption (James, 1993).  The purpose of this kind of advertisement is to give emphasis to the globalism and localism that divides people from one culture to another. This kind of advertisement is considered as the world of global villages and electronic cottages.  Herein, the images of nostalgia may it be rural or urban is used.   These images are used in order to make the audience feel the essence of belongingness.  These advertisements use reality and closeness to make the audience feel that they also belong. The current advertisement of Nescafe, wherein the images of local scenery are used to make it a part of global world is an example of this kind of advertisement which uses nostalgia.  


Also, another advertising campaign to be evaluated is the urban imaging strategies.  This kind of advertisement aims to promote the beauty of a certain place in urban areas.  In this manner, advertising campaigns uses images and print ads to present the current condition of a certain place and how this place differs from other urban places.  Themes of multiculturalism, social integration (Chang, 1997) and other traditions are used to become the center of attention in order to attract tourists and other people to see such place. Furthermore, this kind of advertisement is typically utilized for tourism purposes.  For example, Singapore used this kind of advertisement to promote their country to different people across the globe which they used as a source for economic growth of the country.  Although, Singapore does not have enough natural resources to attract tourists, they decided to develop their country to have unique urban images so that people will be attracted to travel in Singapore. 


It is noted that United Colors of Benetton had been successful for introducing modern style of advertisement.  This advertising campaign is characterized by its uniqueness and modernity.  Herein, United Colors of Benetton had use huge billboards and covering double pages in magazines (Back and Quaade, 1993) in which images and pictures of human carnage and cataclysm are shown and the brand name are superimposed. The purpose of this kind of advertisement is to imply fantasy of multiculturalism and inter-communal harmony and fears of hopeless conflict. Further, the advertisement also aims to show reality.  In addition, Benetton advertisement summarizes three generations, the past, present and the future. It can be concluded that Benetton uses different images and pictures to show the real world and to depict what is happening in the world.  According to Toscani (1993, 74), “to advertise is not just to sell a product. It is also a serious communication.”


            Analysis shows that each institution may it be public or private had differences in formulating their own advertisement.  From a cigarette advertisement, to nutritional supplement advertisement, technology advertisement, nostalgic advertisement, tourism advertisement and clothing advertisement all has their own uniqueness in order to gain the interest of their target audience. In addition, the differences can also be seen with their objective and purpose and the way these advertisements have successfully achieve these goals.


However, these advertising styles have also similarities; analysis shows that each advertisement ha been able to use images and pictures to depict the messages that they want to give to the target audience.  Each institution perceived that the concept of advertisement is a means of communicating to people. Advertisement styles used by the organization above also shows that they used such kind of advertisement for information dissemination. Another similarity that these advertisement styles have is its intense consideration of multiculturalism, socialism and globalism.  For example, the advertisement used by Nescafe considers multiculturalism and globalism so that people from different part of the world may not feel discriminated.  Another example is the advertisement of Singapore, wherein, part of their campaign is the presentation of different cultures and traditions embedded to the country.


 


The Case of British Airways


            According to the study of Doganis (1994), internet shopping is increasingly accepted and used by consumers. Business priorities within the airline industry have changed. A 1999 survey by IBM of senior executives and board members of 119 of the world’s leading airlines found that improving customer service and customer loyalty were considered to be the two most critical strategies in meeting their airlines’ financial goals (IBM 1999).


            The rapid development of information technology during the 1990s has provided airlines with several new tools with which to woo customers and to improve customer service in many areas of airline operations. In the area of marketing and distribution two in particular will play an increasingly important role. These are sales and distribution through the Internet and electronic ticketing. Together they represent the key elements of the application of electronic commerce to air transport. They will undoubtedly transform dramatically the way that airline services and products are marketed and distributed. The process is well under way but the full impact of e-commerce has still to be felt by airlines or their customers. In particular they need to appreciate that the new electronic marketplace will have different rules. While electronic ticketing spread rapidly in North America and less rapidly in Europe in the later 1990s, sales through the Internet lagged far behind.


            A 1999 survey of the state of IT among the world’s leading airlines found that 43 per cent of them expected that within five years, that is, by the end of 2003, they would be selling over half of all their tickets online through the Internet (Ebbinghaus 1999). Yet at the time of the survey in 1999 none was selling more than 10 per cent of tickets online and for most the actual figure was much lower. While Delta, Northwest and US Airways took around 7 per cent of their bookings on the Internet in 1999, for British Airways and most European airlines it was less than 1 per cent (Aviation Strategy 2000). Yet growth in Internet sales can be extremely rapid, as the low-cost carriers have shown. easyJet, in the UK, introduced Internet ticketing at the end of 1997. Within a few months around 10 per cent of its sales were through the Internet and by the end of 1999 Internet sales were averaging close to 40 per cent (Kasper 1994).


            Research found out that 56 percent of the internet users are being exposed to internet advertising and 18 percent of which are actually clicking the ad (Bluestreak.com 2003). In Europe, Internet advertising revenues in the year 2000 reached an estimated amount of US$ 180 million in the UK and US0 million in France (Mcdowall 2001). But the European Commission (1999) said that there are more serious and long-term problems that the airlines industry will be facing in using the Internet such as the balance of market power that has shifted in favor of the consumer. The electronic marketplace offers consumers both fast, borderless and efficient access to information on airline services, timings and prices and the ability to make rapid and effortless reservations and payments.


            One of the goals of the British Airways is to become the major airline in electronic distribution providing a full range of services. This entails developing their websites so as to provide users with more information on, and booking opportunities with, other airlines, possibly competitors. They should also provide seamless access to hotel reservations, car hire, entertainment bookings and so on. They will after all generate some commission revenue by cross-selling while providing an enhanced service to their own customers. In addition they would need to provide corporate customers with the ability to track expenses, monitor travel policies as well as any other services currently offered by travel agents. In other words, they should move towards providing a real ‘one-stop shop’ for travel.          In internet advertising, the companies are able to use different formats depending on the company’s preferred strategies on advertising their products or services. These formats come with the placement of the advertisement on banners, pop-ups, click through, sponsorships and others. British Airways uses all the said formats. Formats are simply the way the advertisement is placed in the web. It is the company’s decision on what format are they going to use to effectively establish the rendered products and services. Banners advertisements are described as ads placed on a rectangular-shaped graphics which is often seen at the upper part and the lower part of the webpage (Schumann and Thorson 1999).  This format is the most common format of internet advertisement. Another format of internet advertisement is the pop-ups. This format shows in a separate window on top of content that is already on the user’s screen (Schumann and Thorson 1999). With this kind of format, users do not have control on the appearance of the ad since this format were already program to be shown on the web and do not offer an option of deleting or escaping the ad because it is intended to show the ad to the user even if the user do not want to view the ad. One disadvantage of this format is that user may tend not to patronize the product or the advertisement being promoted since it interrupts the flow of work of the users however advertiser assumes that having this format will increase the awareness of the users since it will have a bigger chance for the users to recall the ad pop-ups. Sponsorship is another format of the internet advertising. It is coined as a indirect form of internet advertising that permit companies to achieve marketing objectives by connecting it with the key content (Schumann and Thorson 1999). Companies are jumping into this kind of format since they believe that it is a user-friendly approach of promoting and establishing the company’s products and services since it does not take too much time.


            The next type of internet advertisement is the hyperlink format or often called as the hypertext link which can be recognized easily since this type of advertisement format is the highlighted word or graphics in the web that permits the users to connect or linked in another websites by clicking on the hyperlink. This format does not require too much space on the web since most hyperlinks are only presented through text.


 


The Implementation of Internet Advertising and the British Airways


            Accordingly, British Airways (BA) is one of the world’s largest international airlines and carries over 49 million passengers on 535,000 flights annually. To ensure that an operation of this size functions as smoothly and effectively as possible, BA needs to attract talented individuals for a wide range of disciplines. With 65,000 staff spread across the globe, and a need to recruit thousands of people each year, it is essential that BA has in place a streamlined process to quickly select the best people. Most importantly, the company has to be able to identify and attract the exceptional graduates that will form the leaders of the future.


            In year 2001, British Airways established a partnership with RightNow Technologies for the implementation of AskBA customer service that will respond to 55,000 customers’ inquiries every week. The objective of this project is to head the company’s goal of a client facilitated BA.com, where the website will play a vital role in letting clients to serve themselves to every transactions from booking a flight, holiday or car, to checking in online, changing their booking and printing their own boarding passes. The BA.com has made transactions of the clients so easy. British Airways rank as one of the UK’s largest software and systems suppliers because of their Desktop Services group on a coordinated change program in order to enhance radically the performance and gain substantial cost reductions.


 


The Challenges of the Implementation of Internet Advertising in British Airways


            One of the major challenges which British Airways must face is facing is the balance of market power that is more in favor of their clients. This is because the internet gives the client an easy, fast and unlimited access to the airline services, schedules, prices and all other important data about British Airways. Consumer power leads to the commoditization of the airline services. The services will possibly become more or less standard. Internet advertising and internet use will also result to the in conflicts between the airlines and travel agents since the clients could do all their transactions through the internet. This leads to a reduction in ticket sales and actively takes business away by enhancing sales through internet and their own call centers.


 


The Benefits of the Implementation of Internet Advertising in the British Airways


            Clients have transferred manner of ticket purchasing internationally and 20 percent of all British Airways tickets are now sold through its ba.com website. There is a profit gain of 10 percent in the past 2 years. With the start of low cost internet airlines, the rivalry to offer quicker, and safer online bookings. The airline company joined over 27,000 retailers, and 65 issuing banks across Europe that has now signed up for Verified by Visa, an exclusive password service designed to provide shoppers added safety and security when shopping online. The introduction of Verified by Visa has considerably decreased online fraud (BA.com 2005), thus generating necessary excellent profits for British Airways.


 


Implications of Internet Advertising


            The existence of Internet and the continued revolution in the world of IT are certainly positive signs for the blossoming of many new advertising opportunities (Cartellieri 1997). For instance, Popup ads and email ads have started to invade the Internet. Most advertising firms have also started to exert efforts to make their advertisements appealing to the public (McAndrews et al. 2001). Further, creation of ads using the internet is cheaper than any other media because it is easier to make. It saves more time and money since it includes a matter of programming and formatting the ad’s layout. The products or the services reached a wider target market using the internet. Since advertising it on a less strict medium, the product is being viewed with different type of users. This contributes on the success of promoting the company’s products and services since it obtain a larger user’s share.


            Since internet is directly connected on the user’s home, the consumers could easily browse the ads they wanted to view; this increases the awareness of the products and services which in turn produce a more profitable outcome in the company. Consumers could easily access all the information he/she wanted to obtain since internet advertising offers more accessible information regarding the products or services being rendered. The accessibility rate of an online advertising targets a larger consumer since browsing the net runs 24 hours a day and allows the consumers to retrieved information anytime of the day. With the internet features like email and online-forums, the company could easily contact the consumers. With the easy access of the consumers to the company, the users could easily communicate to the company and satisfied their needs in terms of inquiries about the advertised products and services.


           However, there have also been disadvantages in this kind of medium (Onkvisitn and Shaw 1999). Since internet advertising provides a need of assurance on the credibility of the company endorsing their products and services. The convincing elements of the Internet advertisement only depend on the user’s clicking away of the advertisement from the current location. This involves the user to be adequately fascinated in the endorsed products or services. The absence of personal contact between the user and the company tends the user to disregard the advertisement on the web.


            In recent years, the public opinion regarding advertising has become very negative. They view it as a medium that only promotes lies. This is of course contrary to the purpose of advertisements to encourage the target market to patronize a particular product or service. Nowadays, most advertisements are either perceived as merely stating opinions or portraying a product or service in a totally distorted idea away from reality (Saunders 2001). It is this alarming situation regarding the true objectives of advertising that have led to an increase in the responsibilities that companies and advertising firms face (Gertler et al. 2004).


            The effectiveness of the medium (Wells 1997) as utilized by the company can be measured by the level of success being attained in meeting their desired goal to create changes on the consumers’ attitudes and behaviors after the exposure to the advertisement. Illustration of these changes are manifested by the consumer’s heightened awareness to the products or services, increase in sales and profitability, growth of target market base, positive feedbacks from the consumers and an increase of the public agreement with the advertisement message. The nature of advertising is to successfully convey the brand’s message to the consumers and effectively established the products and/or services being rendered. Primarily, advertising is used for the purpose of increasing the products sales, enhance the product’s image, and develop the trust of the consumers in the product or service being advertise.


             


References


 


Allen, F & Gale, D 2001, ‘Financial Markets, Intermediaries, and Intertemporal


Smoothing,’ Journal of Political Economy, vol.105, pp. 523-546.


 


Aviation Strategy 2000, ‘US low-cost carriers reassert themselves’, Aviation Strategy, No. 29, March.


 


Barber, B 1996, Jihad vs. MacWorld: How Globalism and Tribalism Are Reshaping the World, Ballantine Books, New York:


 


Black, L. and Quadde, V. (1993). Dream Utopias, Nightmare Realities: Imaging


            Race and Culture within the World of Benetton Advertising. Third Text


            22, pp. 65-80.


 


Bluestreak.com 2003, Internet advertising, [online] (cited March 10, 2009) Available from http://www.scs.unr.edu/~shaina/Marketing%20Template.pdf#search=’Bluestreak%202003%2C%20Internet%20advertising.’


 


British Airways 2006, The Company Website, [online] (cited March 10, 2009) Available from http://www.britishairways.com/travel/home/public/en_gb.


 


Cartellieri, C 1997, ‘The Real Impact of Internet advertising,’ The McKinsey


Quarterly, no. 3.


 


Carter, M 1999, Basic definitions: Advertising, marketing, Promotion, Public


Relations and Publicity, and Sales. Minnesota.


 


Chang, T.C. (1997). From Instant Asia to Multifaceted Jewel: Urban Imaging


            Strategies and Tourism Development in Singapore. Urban Geography


            18(6), pp.542-562.


 


Chapman, Simon (1986).  Great Expectorations: Advertising and the Tobacco


            Industry.


 


Doganis, R 1994, ‘The impact of liberalisation on European airline strategies and operations,’ Journal of Air Transport Management, vol. 1, no.1, pp. 4.


 


Duncan, T & Ramaprasad, J 1995, ‘Standardized Multinational Advertising: The


Influencing Factors,’ Journal of Advertising, vol. 24, no.3, pp. 55-68.


 


Ebbinghaus, D September 1999, The Impact of E-business and E-commerce in the Air Transport Industry, IATA Airline Financial Forum, Hong Kong.


 


Elinder, E 1961, ‘International Advertisers Must Devise Universal Ads, Dump


Separate National Ones, Swedish Adman Avers,’ Advertising Age, no. 27, pp. 21 – 34.


 


Englis, BB (ed.) 1994, Global and Multinational Advertising, Lawrence Erlbaum


Associates, Hillsdale, New Jersey.


 


European Commission 1999, The European Airline Industry: From a Single Market to a World-wide Challenge, Brussels (June).


 


Featherstone, M 1990, Global Culture: Nationalism, Globalization and Modernity, Sage, London.


Friedman, T 1999, Lexus and the Olive Tree: Understanding Globalization, Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, New York.


Gertler, M & Gilchrist, S 2004, ‘Monetary Policy, Business Cycles and the


Behavior of Small Manufacturing Firms,’ Quarterly Journal of Economics, pp. 309-40.


 


Goddard, A 2002, The Language of Advertising: Written Texts, Routledge,


London.


 


Hancock, D, Humphrey, DB & Wilcox, JA 2002, ‘Cost Reductions in Electronic


Payments: The Roles of Consolidation, Economies of Scale and Technical Change,’ Journal of Banking and Finance, vol. 23, pp. 391-421.


 


Harris, G 1994, ‘International Advertising Standardization: What Do the


Multinationals Actually Standardize?’, Journal of International Marketing, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 13-30.


IBM 1999, World Airlines Benchmark Report, IBM United Kingdom Limited, Feltham, UK.


James, Paul (1993). Planet Nescafe. Arena Magazine, (June-July 1993) pp. 30-


            34.


 


Kameya, A & Zmija, C 2002, What makes online advertising effective?, Michigan


State University.


           


Kasper, DM 1994, ‘The US Airline Commission: an insider’s perspective,’ Journal of Air Transport Management, vol. 1, no. 1, March.


 


Kim, J 2001, ‘Is the internet more effective than traditional media? Factors


affecting the choice of media,’ Journal of Advertising, 41.


 


Lazer, W 1971, Marketing Management: A Systems Perspective, Wiley, New


York.


 


Leiss, W 1972, The Domination of Nature, George Braziller, New York  in


            Riedlinger, M & Pittam, J (eds.) 1997, Nutritional Supplement


            Advertising: Representations of Science and Nature. Media International


            Australia, pp. 122.


 


McAndrews, J & Roberds 2001, ‘A General Equilibrium Analysis of Check Float,’ Journal of Financial Intermediation, 8 October, pp. 353-77.


 


McDowall, B 2001 ‘Internet advertising- or is it advertising,’ IT Analysis, UK.


 


Mitchell, AA (ed.) 1993, Advertising Exposure, Memory, and Choice, Lawrence


Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ


 


Mueller, B 1991, ‘Multinational Advertising: Factors Influencing the Standardized


Versus the Specialized Approach,’ International Marketing Review, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 7-18.


 


Onkvisit, S & Shaw, J 1999, ‘Standardized International Advertising: Some


Research Issues and Implications,’ Journal of Advertising Research, vol. 39, no. 6, pp.1 9-24.


 


Riedlinger, M. and Pittam, J. (1997). Nutritional Supplement             Advertising:


            Representations of Science and Nature. Media International Australia.


 


Saunders, C 2001, ‘Study: Advertising is Barrier to Entry in Web Media,’ Internet Study Report, June 5.


 


Schumann, DW & Thorson, E 1999, Advertising and the World Wide Web,


Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.


 


Shih, M 2001, The Future of interactive advertising on the World Wide Web,


[online] (cited March 10, 2009) Available from http://www.ciadvertising.org/student_account/spring_01/adv391k/myshih/ia/home1.htm.


 


Skinner, BF 1972, Beyond freedom and dignity, Alfred A. Knopf, New York.


Sklair, L 1995, Sociology of the Global System, 2nd ed., Johns Hopkins


University Press, Baltimore.


 


Steinbock, D 2000, The Birth of Internet Marketing Communications, Quorum


Books, Westport, CT.


 


Toscani, O. (1993). In Black, L. and Quadde, V. edition (1993). Dream Utopias,


            Nightmare Realities: Imaging Race and Culture within the World of


            Benetton Advertising. Third Text 22, pp. 74.


 


Tuerck, DG 1978, Issues in Advertising: The Economics of Persuasion, American Enterprise Institute, Washington DC.


 


Wells, WD 1997, Measuring Advertising Effectiveness, Lawrence Erlbaum


Associates, Hillsdale, NJ.


 


Wernick, A 1994, Re-Imagining Technology: The Case of Cars, in


            Promotional Culture, London, Sage, pp. 67-91.


 


Williamson, Judith (1978).  Decoding Advertisements Ideology and Meaning is


            Advertising.  London, Marion Boyars in Riedlinger, M. and Pittam, J.


            edition (1997). Nutritional Supplement Advertising: Representations of


            Science and Nature. Media International Australia.


 


Zajonc, RB 1980, ‘Feelings and thinking preferences need no inferences,’


American Psychologist, vol. 35, pp. 151-75.



Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com


0 comments:

Post a Comment

 
Top