What is racism?


 


Introduction


            Racism is an enduring phenomenon that has evolved with the societal changes. Yet even with the great and long-term impact of racism throughout history, such as the apartheid in South Africa and the holocaust with unprecedented death toll and violence, a commonly accepted and encompassing understanding of this concept remains elusive. Perhaps this is because of dynamism of the manifestation of racism in various socio-cultural contexts and its continuous evolution that prevents the development of a general understanding of racism. When people are asked to express their understanding of racism, different answers would arise, which are based on their respective experiences. This means that another point of difficulty in coming up with a general clarification of racism is its subject nature. However, the fact that racism occurs in various socio-cultural contexts, albeit through different manifestations, indicates that probability of identifying common intervening factors underlying these experiences of racism. This is important to be able to determine and understand the causes of racism to sway socio-cultural direction towards the arrest of the prevalence of racism and ensure common well-being of all people. This may seem utopian but it is towards the achievement of unprecedented levels of well-being that all societies hope to reach. Understanding racism involves a look into its conceptualization in existing literature and its manifestations in actual socio-cultural context, specifically in Australia to contribute to the efforts towards the development of an encompassing understanding of racism. The succeeding discussions focus on the definition of racism, manifestations of racism in Australia in relation to the distribution of power in the Australian society, and the implications of racism in Australia. 


Defining Racism


            The attempt to derive an encompassing definition of racism resulted to the adoption of the broad conceptualization of racism in literature. (2000) provides both a narrow and broad definition of racism but leans more towards the encompassing definition. Narrowly, racism specifically pertains to the reference to biological differences in exploiting or subjugating particular groups as spurred by imagined or real fears ( 2000). However, racist acts do not always result from a group’s commitment towards biological differences but rather these differences are used to justify exclusionary practices for other reasons under the guise of racism. This is supported by the fact that even without a framework of biological differences, racism still persists. As an example, anti-Semitism movements against the Jews emanates from reasons other than biological differences. Racism manifested through the holocaust is not primarily rooted on biological differences. Although, biological differences can result to racism, this is not the only cause of racism. This makes the narrow definition insufficient in providing an encompassing understanding of racism.


            Broadly,  (2000) provides a more encompassing definition that covers racism together with other forms of domination expressed through the manifestations of heterophobia. Racism is then defined as the aggressiveness, domination, fear and hate based on imagined or real difference based on gender, gender preference, age, ethnicity, religious affiliation, and other differences. This definition provides a broader perspective able to encompass the varying manifestations and causes of racism in different socio-cultural intra and inter-group settings. This constitutes a better definition because it transcends the view relying only on biological differences as an explanation of racism. However, some criticize this definition as overly broad since it covers differences extending beyond race. This means that the definition works in explaining situations manifesting heterophobia based on racial together with other differences.


            An alternative definition is provided by  (2003) that defines racism as “any attitude, action, or institutional structure or any social policy that subordinates persons or groups because of their color” (). This definition differentiates racism from other related concepts such as racial discrimination, hatred or prejudice because of the recognition of the intervention of power in the act of racism. Racist practices occurring in a broad and persisting manner occurs due to the wielding of power in a systematic manner. Racism as an application of power is exemplified in the differences in the socio-economic condition of groups belonging to different races. This definition constitutes a sound alternative because it also encompasses a wide range of manifestations of racism but is limited to fears, hatred or apprehensions based on differences in race.


            To further clarify racism,  (1997) classifies the manifestations of racism into three categories. First is individual racism, which refers to attitudes or actions expressed intentionally or unintentionally, consciously or unconsciously with the effect of subordinating individuals or groups due primarily to their color. This could be overt and intentional such as through White supremacist movements or subtle and unintentional such as addressing a white individual with more respect relative to a black individual. Second is institutional racism, which is reflected in structures, policies and practices of government departments, business firms, schools, law enforcement authorities, and the other institutions that unfairly subordinate individuals or groups because of their race. Examples include housing and school segregations, discriminatory employment practices, and racial profiling in law enforcement. Third is cultural racism, which pertains to the expression of superiority of cultural heritage by an individual or institution over other groups with a different culture. An example is the imposition of white beliefs and practices on minority groups.


Racism and Power Distribution in Australian Society


            In Australia, there is a recognized and documented difference in the situation or position of the white population and the aborigines to the disadvantage of the latter minority group. This stems from the systematic exercise of privilege of the white majority group that finds manifestation in the lesser representation of the aborigine group is government and their lesser share in resources. Although this may be justified based on the majority needs, the extent of representation and resource sharing to the minority group is nil. Healthcare and education remains as great problems of the minority group. The manner that the exercise of privilege constitutes racism depends upon the conceptualization of privilege in application to the Australian experience.


             (2000) discuss privilege as having five boundaries. First boundary is privilege as endowing special advantage to particular groups to the exclusion of other groups. This means that privilege is neither universal nor common. Second boundary is privilege as granted to one group over another. This means that privilege does not depend on individual or group effort. Third boundary is privilege as an entitlement or right linked to the preferred rank or status of the individual or group. Fourth boundary is privilege that is exercised to benefit a specific recipient towards the exclusion or harm of other people. Fifth boundary is privilege as a status that is mostly outside of the consciousness or awareness of the individual or group possessing this. In relation to racism, racial privilege has been commonly described in terms of the white-colored dichotomy (1999). This means that the exercise of privilege constitutes racism when this occurs in the context of the white-colored dichotomy.


            The imposition of white dominance is proven by the historical development of Australia as a state. The aborigines were the first people to inhabit the Australian continent. As hordes of white colonizers came to the continent, the white population overpowered the Aborigines population so that the minority group was pushed to the fringes of the main Australian continent and the islands. Before the arrival of the white people in 1788, the Aborigines population numbered around 750,000. After two centuries, the Aborigines population is approximately 410,000. (2005) This number represents 2.2 percent of the total Australian population. The extreme population distribution implies that the white population dominated or controlled all aspects of societal life including resource appropriation such as land distribution, trade, education, and governance.


In fact, the Aborigine population was completely excluded from societal life. This is expressed in the ‘stolen generation’ constituted by the children forcibly separated from their families and taken to live and be educated outside of the settlement (Black & Stone 2005). This policy was without the consent or cooperation of the Aborigine population. It was also only during the 1970s that the commonwealth and state government recognized the policies of land rights and self-determination of the Aborigine population. Even so, the actual implementation of these policies remains problematic since fertile and industrial lands have already been appropriated and centuries of imposition of exclusionary dominance have resulted to an Aborigine population with limited means and infrastructures to apply self-determination.


            In employment, the Aborigine population has an unemployment rate that is more than double the unemployment rate of the white population even if there is a lower level of participation of the white population (2005). This is due to the minimal employment opportunities for the Aborigine population that is linked to the low education rates of the minority group with most of the population finishing only primary education. In healthcare, the Aborigine population has an average life expectancy that is 20 years less than that of the white population. This is largely due to the lack of healthcare services to the minority population. The poor socio-economic status of the minority population also influenced the high rates of alcohol and substance abuse, indicative of the lack of relative power of this minority group.


            Apart from the Aborigine group, Australia also hosts other minority groups that have migrated to the country. In fact, the number of the other minority groups exceeds the total population of the Aborigines. However, there are striking differences in the experiences of the other minority groups when compared to the Aborigine group. Similarities include similar experiences of white cultural domination in terms of socio-economic conditions while differences encompass the higher education levels of the other minority groups resulting to more employment opportunities and other ways of integrating into the mainstream Australian society.


            By looking at the characteristics of the Australian society in relation to the concepts of racism and privilege, it can be said that the white population has practiced racism commencing with the colonization of the continent resulting to discrimination of the Aborigine people and continuing with institutional racism through an exclusionary government that placed the Aborigine population into a settlement and forced children to convert into the white culture. Socio-economic dominance of the white population encompasses individual, institutional and cultural racism. Racism exists in the Australian society because the white population experience and hold on to privileges to the exclusion of the minority groups. Following the description of  (1997), racism can be conscious or unconscious so that even if the white population does not recognize or consciously practice racism, this does not mean that it is non-existent.  


Conclusion


            Although racism exists in the Australian society, major developments have propelled Australia to embrace multiculturalism more.  (2000) provides that at least 60 percent of the Australian population have mixed ethnicity and 20 percent of this number have an ancestry belonging to four ethnic groups. This means that in terms of population, Australia has become multicultural indicating the tipping of the exercise or experience of privilege towards a more equitable expression that cuts across race or ethnicity. This major development should also change individual dealings and institutional infrastructures to accommodate different races forming part of Australian society.  (2000) provides that the consideration of racism should shift towards the triangular perspective that considers the cross-influence of different races. This means that as much as the white population in Australia has influenced the Aborigine and other ethnic groups, these minority groups have also greatly influenced the majority population in so many ways. However, change is protracted and occurs in various levels. Since racism occurs on the individual or institutional level, changing the perspective of racism to the conscious cooperation towards common well-being through the integration of the respective contributions of different ethnic groups to the Australian society could start with individual change. Change necessitates an understanding and recognition of racism and the reasons for racist practices. By having an open mind, racists that are relatively nice to some groups more than others would recognize the lack of justification for their actions and greater cause for embracing multiculturalism.


 


 



Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com


0 comments:

Post a Comment

 
Top