Differentiated Instruction
The term ‘differentiated instruction’ is defined by Tomlinson and Edison (2003) as ‘a systematic approach to planning curriculum and instruction for academically diverse learners. It is a way of thinking about the classroom with the dual goals of honoring each student’s learning needs and maximizing each student’s learning capacity (p. 3). According to Heacox (2001) differentiating instruction involves changing the pace, level or kind of instruction that the educator provides in response to individual learner’s needs, styles, or interests. Differentiated instruction specifically responds to students’ progress on the learning continuum – what they already know and what they need to learn. It responds to their best ways of learning and allows them to demonstrate what they have learned in ways that capitalize on their strengths and interests.
The principles and practices of differentiated instruction are based on theory and research suggesting that students learn more effectively and efficiently when teachers address their readiness levels, interests, and learning profiles. Let us analyze these factors. Readiness is about the level of performance of a student in relation to specific knowledge, understanding and skill. There are indications that individuals learn when tasks are challenging and when adults or peers support students in spanning the gap between the known and familiar and that which is currently somewhat beyond reach. Interest refers to a student’s desire to learn about a particular topic or to work with a particular set of skills, and is strongly linked to motivation to learn. When tasks, problems, and questions are interesting to them, students are more likely to remain engaged with the task, find the work rewarding, function more creatively, work more independently, be more productive, feel more competent, and sustain a higher level of intrinsic motivation. Learning profile refers to preferred modes of learning and is shaped by an individual’s learning style, intelligence preferences, gender, culture, or a combination of these factors (Jetton and Dole 2004).
Theories of Differentiation
It has been said in the previous section that the effectivity and efficiency of learning depends on the students’ level of readiness, interest, and learning profile. In this section, let us look at the theories that support differentiation by readiness, interest and learning profile, which are the key elements of differentiation.
1. Readiness Differentiation
Psychological and modern studies of the human brain present the theory that individuals learn in accordance with their readiness to learn. This theory points to the importance of tasks being at the proper level of difficulty in maintaining the motivation of the learner. Tasks that are too easy tend to be boring while tasks that are too difficult often lead to frustration. According to Lev Vygotsky (1962, 1978), learning takes place at different points. Vygotsky explains that at a certain point of skill and understanding related to a given facet of learning, a child can function totally independently. Beyond that point, the task becomes difficult for the child to accomplish on his/her own. This is where the teacher comes in. When the child receives support from the teacher, he or she can succeed. If the task become more complex, the child will be unsuccessful in completing the task even if the teacher provide support and assistance. The point where the child is able to accomplish complex task with the support and assistance of the adult/teacher is that child’s ‘zone of proximal development’. In the zone of proximal development, new learning takes place which is facilitated by complex task that can be accomplished by the child through adult assistance. The role of the teacher is to push the child into his or her zone of proximal development, coach for success with a task more complex than the child can manage alone, and thus push forward the area of independence. Through repetition of such cycles, the child grasps new ideas, master new skills, and become increasingly independent thinkers and problem solvers. It should be remember, that children of the same age may not have the same zones of proximal development as developmental and experiential differences exist.
2. Interest Differentiation
Psychologists believes that interest paves the way for learning. According to Bruner (1961) when interest in tapped, learning is more likely to be rewarding, and the student becomes a more independent learner. Creativity is highest when skills of a given domain combine with a student’s won interests and creativity thinking processes. When students are encouraged to pursue their areas of interest, there is a great possibility for them to develop skills important to a particular subject discipline. By supporting children in their interests, educators can maximize their engagement with learning, their productivity, and their individual talents (Amabile 1983; Collins and Amabile 1999).
3. Profile Differentiation
Learning profile includes learning style, intelligence preference, and influences of gender and culture. These elements affect individual learning. Dunn (1996) proposed that individuals vary in preference for conditions of learning. Dunn suggests four learning-style categories; environmental, emotional, sociological, and physical. According to Dunn individual preferences can influence student achievement and attitude about learning. Gender and culture are also believed to have an impact on learning. Some theorists maintain that females tend to prefer collaborative rather than competitive learning opportunities, communicate for purposes of establishing relationships, and have preference for areas of study that appear to facilitate helping others. On the other hand, males may prefer competition and more analytic subjects such as science and mathematics (Gilligan 1982, cited in Tomlinson and Allan 2000, p. 22).
Influence of Gender in Learning
There are studies that point to the influence of gender on learning. For example, boys take longer to master reading than girls do; they show early mathematical ability and strengths in three-dimensional reasoning; they prefer action and exploration to passive learning; they benefit from regular physical activity and do best with hands-on learning in reading and math. Moreover, there are evidences that suggest that girls learn best when their classrooms provide variety in teaching methods; tasks with many possible right answers; activities that use manipulatives and a hands-on process approach to learning; opportunities to ask questions and discuss ideas and concepts; visual ways to present information; examples of real-life applications; and a variety of social arrangements in the classroom, such as a balance between independent and collaborative work and balance between same-gender and mixed gender groups (Heacox 2001). Below are some of the identified differences between females’ and males’ learning styles:
1. Deductive and Inductive Reasoning
Boys tend to be deductive in their conceptualization, starting their reasoning process frequently from a general principle and applying it, or ancillary principles, to individual cases. They also tend to do deductive reasoning more quickly than girls. Girls on the other hand, tend to favor inductive thinking, adding more and more to their base of conceptualization. They tend to begin with concrete examples; it is often easy to teach them concentration, especially in verbalization and writing (Gurian et al 2001).
2. Abstract and Concrete Reasoning
Boys tend to be better than girls at not seeing or touching the things and yet still being able to calculate it. Males like abstract arguments, philosophical challenges, and moral debates about abstract principles (Gurian et al 2001).
3. Use of Language
On average females produce more words than males. During the learning process, girls use words as they learn, and boys often work in silence. Girls tend to prefer having things conceptualized in usable, everyday language, complete with concrete details. Boys often find coded language more interesting (Gurian et al 2001).
4. Logic and Evidence
Girls are generally better listeners than boys, hear more of what is said, and are more receptive to the overabundance of details in a lesson or conversation. This hives them great security in the complex flow of conversation, and thus less need to control conversation with dominance behavior or logical rules. Boys tend to hear less and more often ask for clear evidence to support a teacher’s or other’s claim. Girls seem to feel safe with less logical sequencing and more instructional roundabouts (Gurian et al 2001).
5. The Likelihood of Boredom
Boys tend to get bored more easily than girls. This quite often requires more and varying stimulants to keep them attentive. Girls are better at self managing boredom during instruction and all aspects of education (Gurian et al 2001).
6. Use of Space
Boys tend to use up more space when they learn, especially at younger ages. When a girl and a boy are put together at a table, the boy generally ends up spreading his work into the girl’s space, not vice versa. Boys tend to learn by using more physical space than girls do (Gurian et al 2001).
7. Movement
Girls do not generally need to move around as much while learning. Movement seems to help boys not only stimulate their brains but also manage and relieve impulsive behavior. Movement is also natural to boys in a closed space (Gurian et al 2001).
8. Sensitivity and Group Dynamics
Cooperative learning, which is good for all children, is often easier for girls to master in the early stages of its use. Girls learn while attending to a code of social interaction better than boys do. Boys tend to focus on performing the task well, without as much sensitivity to the emotions of others around them (Guria et al 2001).
Leading the Differentiated Classroom
According to Tomlinson (2001), teachers who become successful leaders of differentiated classrooms develop skills of:
- Organizing and focusing curriculum on essential information, understanding, and skills;
- Seeing and reflecting on individuals as well as the group.
- Hunting for insights about individuals;
- Peeling back first impressions, looking beyond actions, erasing stereotypes;
- Giving student a voice;
- Thinking of and using time flexibly;
- Looking for a wide range of materials;
- Thinking of many ways to accomplish a common goal;
- Diagnosing student need and crafting learning experiences in response to diagnoses;
- Thinking of what could go wrong in an activity or task and structuring student work to avoid potential;
- Sharing responsibility for teaching and learning with students, ensuring that students are prepared for the shared roles;
- Moving students among varied work arrangements as a way to see students in new ways and to help them see themselves in new ways;
- Keeping track of student proximity to and growth toward personal and group benchmarks;
- Organizing materials and space;
- Giving directions;
- Teaching for success; and
- Building a sense of community in the classroom (p. 17).
The Role of the Teacher
In order to facilitate differentiated learning, the teacher must modify content, process or products to satisfy the needs of the students and to capitalize on their strengths and interests. Content is what the teacher wants his or her students to learn and the materials or mechanisms through which that is accomplished. Process describes activities designed to ensure that students use key skills to make sense out of essential ideas and information. Products are vehicles through which students demonstrate and extend what they have learned (Tomlinson 1999).
Readiness differentiation of content has as its goal matching the material or information students are asked to learn to a student’s capacity to read and understand it. Interest differentiation of content on the other hand, involves incorporating in the curriculum ideas and materials that build on current interests or extend student interests. Lastly, learning profile differentiation of content implies that a student has a way of matching materials and ideas with his/her preferred way of learning.
Content
Content is what is being taught by the teacher. The content of the curriculum on often determined by the school or district and most of the time is based on the standards set out by local and national governments. Teachers can differentiate content by focusing on the most relevant and essential concepts, processes, and skills or by increasing the complexity of learning. Students have varying needs, there are those who need more instruction and practice while others require less. A teacher differentiates content by:
1. Pre-assessing students’ skills and knowledge, then match learners with appropriate activities according to readiness
2. Giving students choices about topics to explore in greater depth
3. Providing students with basic and advanced resources that match their current levels of understanding
For example, in a classroom a teacher can provide a selection of books that reflect a variety of reading levels and by matching students with the appropriate book. Content can also be differentiated by selecting resources related to a curricular topic, including some that are basic and foundational and others that are more sophisticated, technical, advanced, or in-depth.
Process
Process is the ‘how’ of teaching. In a differentiated instruction, the way the teacher teaches reflects the learning styles and preferences of the students. The teacher can modify process by adding greater complexity or abstractness to tasks, by engaging students in creative thinking, or by increasing the variety of ways in which the teacher asks the students to learn.
Product
Products are the results of learning. A product may be something tangible, like a report, brochure, or model; it may be verbal, like a dialogue, speech, or debate; or it may involve action, like a skit, mock trial, or dance. Products reflect what students have understood and been able to apply. They show learning in use and may reveal new thinking or ideas.
Strategies for Differentiating Content
Listed below are some of the strategies for differentiating content in terms of readiness, interest and learning profile.
1. Concept-Based Teaching
The teacher can help students better understand and see the importance of the topic or lesson by focusing on key concepts and principles. Concepts are the building blocks of meaning. Instead of memorizing, it is encouraged that teachers teach patterns to help students classify things. Having students become adept at determining and predicting patterns and using those patterns to think about various forms of life helps them:
- Understand rather than memorize
- Retain ideas and facts longer because they are more meaningful
- Make connections between subjects and facets of a single subject
- Relate ideas to their own lives, and
- Build networks of meaning for effectively dealing with future knowledge
2. Curriculum Compacting
This strategy is made up of three stages. Stage 1 involves the identification of the candidates for compacting. The teacher assesses what the students know and do not know about a particular topic. Stage 2 involves the identification of the skills and understandings that the students did not demonstrate mastery of. The teacher then develops a plan in order to help students learn those skills and understandings. At the beginning of Stage 3, the teacher and student design investigation or study for the student to engage in while others are working with the general lessons. The teacher and student together agree on the project’s parameters, goals, time lines, procedures for completing the tasks, criteria for evaluation, and any other necessary elements.
3. Learning Contracts
Learning contracts between teachers and students come in several varieties. One allows students some freedom in their use of class time in exchange for doing responsible and effective work. Contracts can contain both ‘skills’ and ‘content’ components, and are helpful in managing differentiated classrooms because the components of a contract can vary with a student’s needs (Tomlinson 2001).
Strategies for Differentiating Process
There are different instructional strategies that teachers can employ that will encourage students to work independently or within a group. By using those activities, the teacher can gain more information that will help in matching activities or processes to the needs of every student (Tomlinson 2001).
Strategies for Differentiating Products
The goals of product assignments is to help students, rethink, use, and extend what they have learned over a long period of time. Product assignments can be used to encourage students into application of ideas and skills. They can also be used to help students explore modes of expression unfamiliar to the students. Below are some of the guidelines in designing and implementing product assignments to ensure student success.
1. Use products as one way to help students see the ideas and skills they study in school being used in the world by real people to address real issues or problems.
2. Talk with the students often about the need for both critical and creative thinking.
3. Require that the students use and synthesize or blend multiple sources of information in developing their products.
4. Ensure that students actually use the entire block of time allotted to the project.
5. Support the students’ use of varied modes of expression, materials and technologies (Tomlinson 2001).
References
Amabile, T. (1983). The Social Psychology of Creativity: New York: Springer-Verlag.
Bruner, J. (1961). The Act of Discovery. Harvard Educational Review, vol. 31, pp. 21-32.
Collins. M. & Campbell, B. (1999). Motivation and Creativity. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.). Handbook of Creativity (pp. 279-312). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Dunn, R. (1996) How to Implement and Supervise a Learning Style Program. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Gilligan, C. (1982). In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Heacox, D. (2001). Differentiating instruction in the regular classroom: how to reach and teach all learners, grades 3-12. Free Spirit Publishing.
Jetton. T. L. & Dole, J. A. (2004). Adolescent literacy research and practice. Guilford Press. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Tomlinson, C. A. (1999). The Differentiated Classroom: Responding to the Needs of All Learners. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Tomlinson, C. A. (2001). How to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed-Ability Classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Tomlinson, C. A. & Allan, S. D. (2000). Leadership for Differentiating Schools and Classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Tomlinson, C. A. & Edison, C. C. (2003). Differentiation in Practice: A Resource Guide for Differentiating Curriculum, Grades 5-9. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Vygotsky, L. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambdrige, MA: Harvard University Press.
Gurian, M., Henley, P. and Trueman, T. (2001). Boys and girls learn differently: a guide for teachers and parents. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
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